✉Michael Henry

mwhenry@eng.hokudai.ac.jp

1 Department of Civil Engineering,The University of Tokyo,7-3-1 Hongo,Bunkyo-ku,Tokyo,Japan

2 Division of Field Engineering for the Environment,Faculty of Engineering,Hokkaido University,North-13 West-8,Kitaku,Sapporo,Japan

3 International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,Institute of Industrial Science,The University of Tokyo,4-6-1 Komaba,Meguro-ku,Tokyo,Japan

1 Introduction

利用选定的方案对田家石畔特大桥进行了托架加固，加固后进行过反复的观察和对比，加固后的托架平顺性保持良好、列车通过时的震颤明显减小，整体加固效果良好。通过对托架螺栓折断原因的分析，建议在条件允许的情况下，特别是在一些重载铁路桥梁上，可以考虑结合将混凝土步行板更换为轻质橡胶步行板，可以有效减轻桥托架动静荷载，从而避免托架病害发生。

1.1 Background and Objectives

At 14:46 on 11 March 2011,a magnitude 9.0 earthquake with a hypocenter in the Pacific Ocean occurred off the eastern seaboard of the northeastern region of Japan.This earthquake was not only the largest ever recorded in Japan,but also caused a massive tsunami that hit the eastern and northeastern regions,and triggered a nuclear crisis at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant(Fig.1),which included core meltdown and the release of radioactive material.This triple disaster is collectively referred to as the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster.

News of the disaster was immediately delivered all over the world.Five minutes after the earthquake struck,Bloomberg Television,which reports 24-h financial information and news internationally in English,made the first announcements about the huge earthquake in Japan;this was followed by CNN International’s report 21 min later(Elliott 2011).Differences in the reported urgency level of the crisis and disagreements and contradictions between the contents of international and domestic(Japanese)media after the earthquake soon emerged,with foreign media more sensational and focused almost exclusively on the nuclear crisis,rather than relief and recovery efforts(Sanchanta 2011).The response of foreign governments also varied widely.Kawasaki et al.(2013b)reported that within 1 day of the earthquake 10 countries issued official evacuation advisories to and travel restrictions on their citizens already resident in or planning to travel to Japan.This number grew somewhat in the aftermath of the earthquake and as the nuclear crisis unfolded,but the level of urgency of the advisories varied.A large majority of foreign governments issued no specific advisory to their citizens in Japan,thus adding to confusion about the actual urgency level of the crisis.

Foreigners skilled only in English strongly tended to use English more than either Japanese or other languages for all media modes.English-language traditional Internet media was used by 81%of respondents and English-language television was used by 64%of respondents.Among English-language media modes,the trend of foreigners skilled only in English was very similar to that of foreigners skilled in both English and Japanese,but a higher percentage of respondents skilled only in English tended to use the English-language modes.

Although a lack of language proficiency can contribute to increased disaster vulnerability due to inability to acquire relevant information in a timely manner,it is not clear how language proficiency affects disaster information gathering, especially among nonnative populations.Through analysis of the information-gathering behavior of foreigners in Japan after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake from the perspective of language proficiency,this study expands the existing knowledge on information seeking in times of disaster,and proposes actions for the improvement of disaster information dissemination and disaster mitigation planning.

This research is focused specifically on the issue of language proficiency.Although guidelines in Japan acknowledge language proficiency as a problem for disaster support and mitigation planning,it is not clear how proficiency in a local language,or lack thereof,affects disaster information-gathering behavior and how this should be addressed in disaster prevention planning.The objective of this article,therefore,is to understand the information gathering behavior and needs—examined by media mode,language preferences,information importance,and information-gathering related difficulties—of foreign residents in Japan from the perspective of language proficiency by analyzing the results of a questionnaire survey conducted in Japan after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.

1.2 Research Significance

The foreign population in Japan comprises less than 2%of the total population(Ministry of Justice 2013),but the importance of establishing support for foreigners can be understood in the context of past,present,and future socioeconomic changes and policies in Japan.Although still very small,the foreign population in Japan nearly doubled from 1990 to 2012(Ministry of Justice 2013);the annual number of foreign tourists,a growing economic industry,also more than tripled over the same period(Japan National Tourism Organization 2012).Furthermore,in 2013,the 2020 Summer Olympics was awarded to Tokyo,and the Japanese government announced plans to double the number of foreign tourists to 20 million by 2017(Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet2013).These announcements were followed by reports,in 2014,that the government might also consider accepting more foreign immigrants to counteract Japan’s shrinking population(Cabinet Office 2014).

The foreign population in Japan is concentrated in only a few areas:Tokyo(approximately 400,000 foreign residents),Osaka(200,000),Aichi(200,000),Kanagawa(160,000),and Shizuoka(80,000)prefectures.These areas also represent most of the major tourist destinations.The probability that great earthquakes,such as the projected Tokyo metropolitan,Tokai,or Tonankai Earthquakes,might occur in these same areas is very high(Maki et al.2009;Cabinet Office 2012).It is therefore of critical importance to prepare disaster response capabilities for a more diverse population in response to demographic changes.The results obtained in this study may serve as a basis for further research on and development of support systems in Japan,as well as in other disaster-prone countries with diverse populations.

2 Literature Review

To provide context to this research on the disaster information seeking behavior of foreigners in Japan with varying levels of Japanese language proficiency,this section reviews the existing literature on information seeking and media usage,disaster information dissemination and gathering after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,and the disaster information needs of unique populations.

2.1 Information Seeking and Media Usage

In times of disaster,individuals seek information in order to assess risk and inform decision making(Spence et al.2005).Their understanding of risk and subsequent actions are dependent on the breadth and depth of information obtained,and multiple types of media and information sources may be utilized in the information collection process(Mileti and O’Brien 1992).Television,local radio,newspapers,and interpersonal networks are examples of commonly used media modes for gathering information during disaster situations(Piotrowski and Armstrong 1998;Bracken et al.2005;Spence et al.2007a;Burke et al.2010).The preferred medium may be affected by a variety of factors,such as when the disaster occurs(Bracken et al.2005;Spence et al.2005),the type of disaster(Spence et al.2007a),or individuals’characteristics(Spence et al.2007a,b;Burke et al.2010;Spence et al.2010;Henry et al.2017).Research has suggested that the utility of media modes also varies.Television reports,which are visual,short,and occur frequently,tend to provoke emotional responses;conversely,printed media are longer and more in-depth,and thus may be more effective for the dissemination of facts(Piotrowski and Armstrong 1998).Interpersonal networks,on the other hand,have been shown to be useful for validation of information among trusted relationships(Spence et al.2007b).

Online information seeking and the utilization of social media in disaster situations have been growing as access to the Internet becomes more widely available,and literature has demonstrated that online resources have been effective for people seeking information(Boyle et al.2004;Lu et al.2007).Online geographic information systems(GIS)represent one example of a technology that has emerged as an important tool in disaster situations(Butler 2006;Goodchild 2010).Response to the 2005 Hurricane Katrina revealed the importance of publicly available satellite images and other geographical data,and is considered the starting point of online disaster response integrating community-sourced data with Google Maps and Google Earth(Laituri and Kodrich 2008).The 2010 Haiti Earthquake is considered the first disaster that demonstrated the potential of geospatial technologies with open source and web mapping tools,such as Open Street Map(Zook et al.2010;Kawasaki et al.2013a).

Social media,on the other hand,has been shown to provide a forum for people to disseminate and discuss disaster issues,experiences,and information,and to build strong personal connections for coping with disaster effects and loss(Palen 2008;Shklovski et al.2008;Qu et al.2009).This last aspect—connecting to other people with local concerns—is important considering that people experience the need for emotional support and companionship while suffering from a disaster(Perez-Lugo 2004).Internet-based social media can help people stay connected regardless of physical separation.It has been suggested,however,that social media may be more effective for emotional release than for information gathering(Lachlan et al.2014a,b).

2.2 Disaster Information During and After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

Some studies on disaster information dissemination and collection were carried out in Japan after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.NHK Broadcasting Cultural Research Institute empirically analyzed how the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster was reported by TV news programs both inside and outside Japan.Tanaka and Hara(2012)analyzed all visual and audio TV coverage by the three major channels in Japan,including NHK(Japan Broadcasting Corporation,Japan’s only public broadcaster),for 72 h after the quake.They found that the most reported information within the first 24 h after the quake was on the tsunami,but gradually shifted to the nuclear power plant accident,which became the most-reported topic after 24 h.There were some differences in the coverage approaches among the three domestic television stations.Kowata et al.(2012)compared the news broadcast contents of eight news programs in seven foreign countries,and showed that all news programs they investigated had extensive coverage on the Tohoku Earthquake,with the most-covered story being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant accident.They revealed that most news content and the approach toward news coverage were generally reliable,but even major news programs included some false information,as well as sensational and exaggerated expressions with inadequate images and sounds,particularly related to the nuclear crisis.

According to a survey on trends in media usage carried out by the Nomura Research Institute(2011),television was the highest-ranked source for acquiring important information,followed by newspaper and portal sites on the Internet.A different survey on information gathering after the disaster found a similar result(My Voice Communications 2011),thus demonstrating the utility of television as a primary tool for information acquisition.

For online disaster response after the earthquake,a wide range of mapping activities was identified,including integrated geospatial information such as remote sensing data,Google Maps and Google Earth,and voluntarily provided crowd-sourced spatial data,called VGI(volunteered geographic information)(Zhang et al.2015).Social media was also found to be highly useful for facilitating communication between individuals,governments,organizations,and media,and for general information sharing and gathering(Jung and Moro 2014).

2.3 Disaster Information Needs of Unique Populations

For foreigners skilled only in Japanese,the most-used media mode and language was Japanese language television,followed by Japanese traditional Internet media.This group showed almost zero usage of English-language media modes,and generally preferred Japanese over other languages(except for interpersonal communication).In general,the trend of foreigners skilled only in Japanese was similar to that of Japanese skilled only in Japanese,although foreigners utilize more media modes in other languages,on average.

Research focusing on the information needs of nonnative(foreign)populations during or after a disaster is limited.One study examined the role of community radio in the wake of the 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake,and found that it was important not only for disseminating information in a variety of languages to the affected local foreign communities in the Kobe area but also for building and strengthening the communities themselves(Hibino et al.2012).Hasegawa et al.(2005)tackled the language barrier issue for people who cannot understand the Japanese language by developing a web-based multilingual disaster information system for quickly translating and disseminating information to mobile phones.In the aftermath of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,however,more attention began to be paid to the disaster information needs of foreigners in Japan(Kimura 2012).A study on the post-disaster response of international students at Tohoku University in Sendai,Japan—the largest city nearest the epicenter of the earthquake—found that students,despite having access to the Internet and information resources,were passive in their demand for disaster information,and tended to rely on secondary sources of information,such as their families,their university research group,and friends of the same nationality(Gomez 2013).Yonekura(2012),in contrast,after the earthquake conducted a survey of foreign residents from four countries(China,South Korea,Brazil,the Philippines)that revealed nearly all respondents used television,but demonstrated usage of the Internet and newspapers varied depending on nationality.

（三）地方配套和企业自筹资金难以到位。许多基本建设投资都是“拼盘”项目，即由中央和省级基建投资、市县地方财政配套、项目单位自筹资金构成。但在申报预算时，地方由于财力不足，往往只想争取中央和省级财政资金做项目，而中央和省级审批时往往未充分考虑地方配套和单位自筹资金方案是否可行，能否落实，致使许多项目由于资金不足导致工程停滞、烂尾。

After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,however,the Japanese government began to take action regarding the deficiencies in disaster support and planning for foreigners in Japan.In 2014,the Ministry of Land,Infrastructure,Transport,and Tourism published the “Guidelines for Preparing Initial Response Countermeasures for Foreign Travelers Visiting Japan when a Natural Disaster Occurs.”This document was intended to support the owners and operators of tourist spots and lodgings,whereas the“Guidelines for Assuring the Safety of Foreign Travelers Visiting Japan”targeted the development of concrete measures to support foreigners in regional disaster prevention planning(Ministry of Land,Infrastructure,Transport,and Tourism 2014a,2014b).These guidelines outlined the special traits of foreigners that should be considered in disaster prevention planning,including:the wide variety of nationalities and their different levels of disaster experience and knowledge;the lack of basic knowledge regarding disaster response and evacuation that Japanese people take for granted;the lack of familiarity with the local terrain during evacuation;the lack of Japanese language proficiency;and the lack of a common mindset for collective behavior due to cultural differences.These guidelines provide one example of how the Japanese approach to addressing the needs of foreigners tries to acknowledge the diversity of this group while still,ultimately,using the catchall label of “foreigner.”

3 Methodology

The survey was distributed via the snowball method.This approach was chosen as the most viable means for obtaining results,as there are no standardized means or services available for directly contacting large numbers of foreigners residing in the Kanto area.The distribution consisted of several stages,such as sending direct requests for cooperation to embassies,universities,business communities,and so forth,as well as requests sent through the authors’professional and social contacts.Responses were gathered for 6 weeks,beginning roughly 10 weeks after the earthquake occurred,with a total of 1357 responses collected representing 74 countries.

3.1 Survey Design and Distribution

An anonymous,Internet-based questionnaire survey was conducted that targeted people in the eastern region(Tokyo metropolitan area and Tochigi,Gunma,Ibaraki,Saitama,Chiba,Yamanashi,and Kanagawa prefectures)of Japan.The survey contents focused on in this article are given in Table 1,and details of the survey design and distribution are summarized in Table 2.

Due to the broad scope of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster,the survey treated disaster information as information related to any of the three events—the earthquake,tsunami,and nuclear crisis.The media modes chosen for the survey were selected based on a review of previous literature,with certain modes grouped together under a single category(for example,printed media,interpersonal).In contrast to most previous studies,several types of Internet-based media were included to reflect the diversity of ways in which the Internet is currently utilized for information gathering.Respondents were also asked to indicate what types of information were important for their decision making during the first day,the first week,and the second week after the earthquake.These information-collection periods were selected based on a review of previous literature,as well as through assessment of post-disaster news reports.The sources of information-gathering-related difficulties were selected based on a review of experiences shared in person,among online communities,and through news reports in the aftermath of the disaster.

The survey was prepared in nine languages to collect responses from the major nationalities residing in the Kanto area.To ensure translation quality,the survey contents were prepared via a three-step process.First,English and Japanese contents were developed by native English and Japanese speakers,respectively.Based on these forms,native speakers of the other seven languages,who are fluent in either English or Japanese,translated the contents into their native language.The contents were then checked by a second native speaker in each language and revised appropriately.

两组治疗后房颤负荷与心率均低于治疗前，且观察组治疗后房颤负荷低于对照组，差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）；两组治疗后心率相比，差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。见表1。

The research methodology section consists of the survey design and distribution,categorization by language proficiency,extracted sample characteristics,survey result analysis methods,and limitations of the adopted methodology and research.

3.2 Categorization by Language Proficiency

Data on the respondents’language proficiency were gathered by self-assessment using five levels:Native,Advanced,Intermediate,Basic,and None.To investigate how language proficiency affected information gathering behavior,the respondents were categorized based on their Japanese(speaking and listening)and English proficiency.As this analysis aimed to examine the difference between high and low proficiency,the categorization focused only on respondents at the opposite ends of the proficiency spectrum.English proficiency was included due to its widespread use as the secondary language for communication in Japan.

The distribution of all respondents by their Japanese and English language proficiencies are shown in Table 3.For foreign respondents,three groups were created:respondents with high proficiency(Native or Advanced)in both English and Japanese;respondents with high proficiency in Japanese and low proficiency(Basic or None)in English;and respondents with high proficiency in English and low proficiency in Japanese.These groups were labeled Jpn+Eng,Jpn,and Eng,respectively.Japanese respondents were also categorized into two groups(high proficiency in both Japanese and English,and high proficiency in Japanese and low proficiency in English)to serve as control groups.The relationships between the categorized groups are illustrated in Fig.2.Following this process,767 Japanese(J)and foreign(F)respondents belonging to atotal of five analysis groups were extracted from the overall sample.

ST131型菌株对氨苄西林、头孢唑林、头孢曲松、环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星、庆大霉素以及复方新诺明耐药率＞50%，ESBLs阳性率达77.8%，多重耐药率高达88.9%，并高于非ST131型菌株，但差异并无统计学意义（表5）。

3.3 Extracted Sample Characteristics

Japanese respondents made up 41%(312 people)of the total number of extracted respondents,with foreigners making up the remaining 59%(455 people).The distributions of foreign respondents by world region and nationality are given in Table 4.The largest number came from China(60 people),followed by the United States(42 people)and the United Kingdom(29 people).However,the Asian region represented the most respondents(46%,with 203 people),while Europe represented the largest number of unique nationalities(26 countries).Conversely,less than 3%of all respondents came from Africa(9 people)or the Middle East(2 people).

Other demographic characteristics of the Japanese and foreign respondents are given in Table 5.The distribution of foreigners skewed younger than the distribution of Japanese.The male–female distribution was relatively similar for both groups,although both had roughly twice the number of men than women.Finally,foreign respondents had a higher percentage of lower and higher income earners,whereas Japanese respondents had a higher percentage of middle-income earners.

3.4 Survey Result Analysis Methods

Analysis of the results consisted of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.Media mode and language preferences,important information types,and information difficulties were examined descriptively,along with the Chi-square test,which was carried out to confirm dependency on language proficiency and nationality.In some cases,the number of respondents was not high enough togive valid results using the Chi-square test;these cases were not examined in further detail.The open responses of selected respondents were qualitatively analyzed by grouping the responses that focused on media mode and language preferences,information difficulties,and associated approaches and solutions,followed by identification of the relationship between these items.

The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake highlighted critical issues in Japan regarding the dissemination of disaster information and its collection by populations not fluent in the Japanese language.This introductory section briefly reviews the news reporting and disaster response of foreign governments and foreigners in Japan after the disaster,as well as the Japanese government’s efforts to address the disaster needs of foreigners in Japan,before establishing the positioning and significance of this research focusing on the language proficiency of foreigners as a problem for disaster prevention planning.

3.5 Methodology Limitations

Although the survey is significant in its scope and collection of data on foreign population in Japan,there exist limitations related to representativeness and self-evaluation that must be considered when interpreting the results and discussions.A snowball method(introduced in Table 2)was utilized for gathering responses due to the difficulty in directly contacting the foreign population,and the survey itself was carried out only in an Internet environment.Only foreigners in the eastern region,which was not heavily damaged,were collected.The sample is thus skewed towards those who were proactive in participation,had relatively unaffected access to information,and who use the Internet on a regular basis.Additionally,the survey allowed for the self-evaluation of language proficiency,and there may have been bias in the evaluation of respondents’language proficiency.The survey,however,did not suggest any benefit to providing higher or lower self-evaluation,so this limitation is considered acceptable within the scope of the study.

4 Results

The survey results are reported and analyzed by language proficiency and nationality in this section.These cover the media mode and language preferences,information importance over time,sources of information gathering difficulties,and open responses.

4.1 Media Mode and Language Preferences

Media mode and language preferences for information gathering are shown in Fig.3.Results are given in terms of the percentage of respondents from each group who utilized each media mode in each language.The average numbers of utilized media modes by language are summarized in Table 6.

Foreigners skilled in Japanese and English utilized the widest variety of media modes and languages.Japanese television was used the most by this group,followed by Japanese and English traditional Internet media.Foreigners skilled in Japanese and English tended to utilize Japanese more than English or other languages for non-Internet media modes such as television,radio,printed media,and interpersonal,but utilized English more for Internet media modes(except for traditional Internet media).On average,they utilized more media modes in Japanese than in English.

In the month following the disaster,roughly 10%of the foreign resident population in Japan left the country(Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry 2011).While much attention was paid to this flight in both domestic and international media,only later did discussion turn to the issue of how to provide proper support for the foreign community in Japan in a post-disaster situation.Questions arose related to deficiencies in the dissemination of disaster information to non-Japanese people,such as the dearth of English-language information from official,primary sources.This is not the first time such problems have been exposed.Inadequate information dissemination for foreigners was previously observed in the wake of the 1995 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in Kobe,Japan(Sasaki 1995),but no comprehensive actions were implemented thereafter.

Information needs and media usage in times of disaster are not uniform across society,but,rather,vary depending on the characteristics of the impacted populations.Spence et al.(2007a)and Burke et al.(2010),in similar studies conducted after Hurricanes Katrina and Ike,found that television and interpersonal networks were important for disaster information gathering and verification among marginalized people,such as the disabled and minorities.Other studies have demonstrated how gender and income affect information-seeking behavior.After the collapse of a highway bridge in the United States,women more actively utilized the Internet than men and found television more useful(Spence et al.2010).An investigation by Henry et al.(2017)on the effect of income disparity on information gathering during the 2011 Chao Phraya River flood in Thailand found that,although television was widely used,poorer people were more likely to use lower-level technologies for information gathering,such as radio and loud speakers,be unaware of a government hot line,and have less access to information resources in general.

Japanese respondents very strongly tended to use Japanese-language media modes regardless of their English language proficiency.The most-used media mode for both groups was Japanese television for Japanese skilled in both English and Japanese and those skilled in Japanese only,followed by Japanese traditional Internet media.Japanese skilled in both languages utilized more media modes in Japanese,on average,than those respondents skilled only in Japanese,as well more media modes in English.

根据最近年份的高考历史题型来看，较为稳定，历史不像数学物理等科目，历史只有一个，掌握了整个历史脉络就不怕题型的更改，因为万变不离其宗。高三历史教师应注重把关学生的解题习惯，养成良好的解题习惯在考场上能起到引发知识点的作用。因此，题型的反复实训是非常重要的，任何题型的解题方式和思路都需要一一讲授，授人以鱼不如授人以渔。将捕鱼的技巧方式传授给学生，学生掌握后，在今后的考试中就会游刃有余。

4.2 Information Importance Over Time

Important types of information during the first day, first week,and second week after the earthquake are summarized in Fig.4.The reported results are shown as the percentage of respondents from each group who indicated that a given type of information was important for their decision making.

对不同类型的茄子种质资源进行遮光处理,通过性状对比,将套袋获得的69份茄子种质进行了光敏类型的分组,得到了5份光不敏感型茄子材料。通过高效液相色谱与质谱联用技术确定了145号光不敏感型紫茄中花色苷的种类主要为飞燕草素-3-芸香糖苷。套袋茄果果皮中的花青素的含量约为同株系未套袋茄果果皮花青素含量的83.1%,遮光环境并未影响光不敏感型紫茄中花青素的主要种类。

There were few significant differences by language proficiency during the first day after the earthquake.Safety of family,friends,and so on was the most-cited important information type for all groups,but the number of respondents indicating this type was higher for foreigners skilled in both Japanese and English and both Japanese groups than for foreigners skilled in English only or in Japanese only.Another difference by language proficiency could be seen for transportation systems,with less than 50%of foreign respondents indicating this type of data as important,compared to 64%or greater for the two Japanese respondent groups.

她看妓女们全穿着素色衣服，脸色也是白里透青，不施粉黛的缘故。赵玉墨穿一袭黑丝绒旗袍，守寡似的。她的行头倒不少，服丧的行头都带来了。书娟很想剜她一眼，又懒得了。妓女们在鬓角戴一朵白绒线小花，是拆掉一件白绒线衣做的。

Study on thickness control method of steel bar protective layer in main structure of metro stations in Qingdao

By the first week,the major important information types had shifted noticeably from the first day.Safety of family and friends became one of the least-cited types.Instead radiation level and risk became the most cited for all groups,but the percentage of respondents citing this information type varied significantly.Foreigners skilled in both Japanese and English,and foreigners skilled only in English,appeared more likely to cite this information type as important for their decision making relative to the other groups.These two groups were also similarly more concerned with information related to food and water supply than the other groups.Significant differences could be observed for other information types as well,but these were,in general,cited by a smaller percentage of respondents than the leading first day information types.

The percentage of respondents citing important information types dropped for nearly every information type,language proficiency,and nationality,from the first to second weeks.Radiation level and risk remained the mostcited information type for all groups,but while the percentage of respondents decreased for foreigners,it actually increased for Japanese respondents.No other information type was cited by more than half of the respondents in any of the language groups.

桥头路基的填筑通常都是使用无机结合料填筑，由于该材料具有着极大的自重，加之长期巨大的荷载作用之下，诱发桥头路基在使用过程中会有沉降问题的出现。桥头路基沉降最直接的表现就是桥头跳车，不仅给行车车辆带来了不舒适的影响，还可能导致出现一些行车安全事故的发生。为了提升人们出行的安全性和舒适性，如何提升城市高架桥头路基沉降的施工技术值得深入探讨。

4.3 Sources of Information Gathering Difficulties

The sources of difficulties related to information gathering are shown in Fig.5.The most-cited difficulty,on average,was:confused by conflicting or differing information.This was indicated by a similar ratio of respondents regardless of language proficiency.The largest disparity due to language proficiency was found for:couldn’t understand(language ability).This obstacle was highly cited almost exclusively by foreigners skilled only in English.This was also the most-frequently cited difficulty for that group.Significant dependence of individual sources of difficulty on language proficiency were observed for the category:unable to access information,as well as couldn’t understand(language ability)and unable to find information.

4.4 Open Response Analysis

In the previous section,the largest disparity between respondents occurred for foreigners skilled only in English.These respondents overwhelmingly cited the couldn’t understand due to the language ability problem as a main source of disaster information-related difficulties,and they were the only group that did not utilize Japanese-language media modes.The open responses of these respondents were therefore analyzed to explore how foreigners skilled only in English tried to overcome the difficulties they encountered.It was found that they utilized three methods for understanding information that was originally available only in Japanese.

The first was via NHK(Japan Broadcasting Cooperation),Japan’s only public broadcaster.For regular NHK General TV programs,two news programs are simultaneously translated into English using alternative audio.After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,two additional news programs were also translated into English simultaneously with extended airtime.In addition,NHK also broadcast the news briefings of the Tokyo Electric Power Company(TEPCO)and the press conferences of the Prime Minister with simultaneous English translation using alternative audio.NHK World,a 24-h English news program that normally can only be viewed outside Japan,was delivered after the earthquake via the Internet using sites such as Ustream,Nico Nico Douga(Niconico,an uploaded video sharing service provided by Niwango),and Yahoo,as well as via cable TV in Japan through special arrangements with domestic cable TV companies.Through these supporting activities led primarily by the public broadcaster,there were a variety of Japanese news program choices that could be viewed in English for a period of time after the earthquake.

综上所述，融合生产在技术上是可行的，虽然短期内还不能见效，但从发展的角度来看，融合生产相对常规生产具有不可比拟的优势，同时也将发挥更大作用。

The second means was through the use of social media,such as Facebook,to collect or find domestic information that was translated into English by a third party.Several respondents cited the Fukushima Reactor Feed as a helpful and important information source after the earthquake.The Fukushima Reactor Feed was a Facebook page launched at noon on 12 March 2011,by a foreigner residing in Japan,with the intention of sharing information on the nuclear power plant crisis by translating news broadcasts and articles related to the situation in Fukushima.Some of this information included URLs referring back to the original information source,whereas some information was from other individuals’translation of domestic TV broadcasts and news articles.Similarly,some individuals and groups provided Japanese information by translating it into English on their blogs and websites.As a result,it was possible for foreigners skilled only in English to obtain domestic information originally in Japanese through informal translations by third parties,although the accuracy of these translations may have varied widely.

为高效构建云南特色电力大数据中心，云南电网公司以开源技术为基础，构建了云南电网第一个集云计算、大数据为一体的智能型“云电智云”平台，为云南电网用户提供云计算和大数据服务。这是南方电网首个通过入网安评测试的集大数据、云计算为一体的智能云平台，在全国央企行业的云计算、大数据应用方面处于前列。

The third and final means was via automatic translation of Japanese text into English using translation software or translation applications within a web browser.In this case,it is difficult to obtain an exact translation of a Japanese sentence into an English one,but for some people it was possible to understand the approximate meaning by identifying keywords from the translation result.

本课程多媒体教学资源构建主要目的在于制作合适本门课程的教学动画、视频和相关素材搜集整理和整合，适当延长微课时间，增强知识点间衔接，授课过程中侧重课后及课堂练习的运用。

5 Discussion

Building on the report and analyses of the survey results,this section examines the observed trends in media use and information importance in the context of the existing literature,and explores the effect of language proficiency on the information gathering behavior of foreigners.Implications and considerations for future improvement of disaster information dissemination are then discussed.

5.1 General Trends in Media Use and Information Importance

After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,television and traditional Internet media were the most utilized media modes among the surveyed respondents,regardless of language proficiency and nationality.The widespread utilization of television falls in line with the previous literature,both inside and outside Japan,as well as for various types of disasters,and indicates that the social impact and expectation for TV as a primary information source remains high.

On the other hand,the usage rate of traditional Internet media was not much lower than that of television,which suggests that the utility of this media mode has increased,relative to recent disasters(Spence et al.2008;Burke et al.2010).Television,while visual and frequently occurring,is limited in its ability to disseminate localized and detailed information.Traditional Internet media may have played the role normally held by printed media,which was not as widely utilized by the respondents as television or traditional Internet media,by serving to disseminate facts and complement the general in formation available from television.This result also must be considered in the context of the methodology;as the survey was distributed online,the sample group may be more inclined to use online information resources.

Media modes that do not rely on a steady supply of electricity,such as radio,printed media,and interpersonal,were noticeably less utilized than the aforementioned two media modes.The area surveyed in this study(the greater Kanto area)was not heavily damaged by the earthquake or the subsequent tsunami,and thus usage of electronic media(namely,television and Internet-based modes)could generally continue.Rotating blackouts,implemented in response to the energy supply shortage caused by suspension of nuclear energy generation,may have had some impact on information gathering behavior,as indicated by the common difficulty experienced by survey respondents,who were unable to access information(for example,due to mobile congestion and power outage).But the media mode preferences of respondent groups who more frequently indicated this difficulty were not notably different than other groups.

In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake,respondents were,generally,concerned with con firming safety and grasping the extent of damage,as well as the status situation of transportation systems.The importance of the first two information types in the day after the earthquake can be viewed as basic information-seeking behavior,and is consistent with previous studies.The importance of transportation systems should be examined in the context of the post-earthquake situation in the Kan to area.Despite limited direct damage in the Kan to area,train services—which are relied upon by millions of commuters—were suspended for hours or longer.Commuters working in the central business areas,but living in suburban areas,were forced to find alternative means of transportation home in the evening after the earthquake;anecdotal reports suggest that some people walked for hours just to return home.The reliance of millions of commuters on the extensive train system in the Kanto area,and the temporary suspension of services after the earthquake,thus led to many people relying on transportation-related information to direct their decision making on how to return home.Consequently,this may also have contributed to a high reliance on Internetbased media modes throughout the crisis,as these would have been the most reliable for obtaining updates on the transportation network.

Another notable trend could be seen for respondents in radiation level and risk,the importance of which increased dramatically after the first day.Although meltdown of the reactors at Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant was not confirmed until several weeks later,explosions at Units 1 and 3 in the days following the earthquake led to immediate concerns about radiation exposure and the long-term safety of the affected populations.Concurrently,the situation at the nuclear power plant became the most-reported topic in the news 24 h after the earthquake.The increased importance of information on radiation level and risk is thus an indicator of the confusion and uncertainty regarding the situation at the nuclear power plant,and has been similarly observed after previous nuclear power plant disasters(Cutter and Barnes 1982).

5.2 Effect of Language Proficiency Among Foreign Respondents

The language skills of the foreign respondents were confirmed to be diverse,and media mode and language preferences were subsequently found to vary depending on their language proficiency.It can be concluded that the label of “foreigner”alone is not indicative of whether a foreign person in Japan has special needs for disaster information and support.Foreign respondents with Japanese language abilities similar to that of Japanese respondents shared similar preferences for Japanese-language media modes and similar information difficulties.Consequently,their needs may be more similar to the needs of Japanese citizens,and they may be covered by measures that target the general populace.Foreigners with both Japanese and English ability demonstrated the most diverse usage of media modes and languages,which suggests that they had access to the greatest amount of information resources.Even foreign respondents skilled in Japanese only used more media modes overall than Japanese respondents skilled in Japanese only.

On the other hand,it was found that foreign respondents without Japanese proficiency experienced unique challenges—they could not obtain information easily due to language difficulties.Foreigners skilled only in English tended to use similar English language media modes as foreigners skilled in both Japanese and English.These modes,however,may have played a much different role for foreign respondents skilled in English only—particularly Internet-based media modes.New information technologies proved to be highly beneficial to this group in the effort to overcome their language-related difficulties,because they were able to obtain some disaster information through translated broadcast contents or through an Internet environment that provided them with access to informal English translations of Japanese information as well as the tools to translate information themselves.Although the quality of these translations is uncertain,and thus it is unclear whether they could actually acquire the original information,the responses found in this survey indicate that the Internet played a strong role in their informationgathering activities.This may also represent a change in the utility of social media in disaster situations—from merely serving as a forum to build personal connections and providing an outlet for emotional release,to helping people bridge the knowledge gap that forms due to a lack of skill in the local language.

Foreigners unskilled in Japanese may have had access to fewer information resources than respondents with Japanese language proficiency,but this did not have an impact on whether they were more or less likely to be confused due to conflicting or differing information.It may be expected that increasing information resources would increase the chances of encountering,and thus being confused by,conflicting or differing information,but the results found here showed little difference in the ratio of respondents who cited this information-gathering difficulty,regardless of nationality or language proficiency.Examination of information importance shows that,after the first day,concerns about radiation level and risk were predominant among all groups.Considering that respondents skilled in Japanese only were just as confused as respondents completely unskilled in Japanese,who were obtaining Japanese-language information through various means of unknown quality,then it stands to reason that this information gathering-related difficulty was not caused by the media mode or language used,but that the original information was the source of confusion and conflict.Previous nuclear disasters have demonstrated the need for accurate,timely,and transparent information dissemination during a crisis(Lester 1983).In the case of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,failure to meet these standards may have further compounded the difficulties faced by foreigners residing in Japan.

5.3 Implications for Improving Disaster Information Dissemination

The analysis presented here showed that language proficiency clearly affected the information collection behavior of foreigners in Japan after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.In particular,foreigners who were not skilled in the Japanese language experienced difficulties unique to their situation,but they were able to somewhat overcome these difficulties through a variety of media modes.Based on this understanding of how media modes were utilized for information gathering,the following points should be considered by organizations responsible for information dissemination to the foreign population in times of disaster.

First,although it seems self-evident,many disaster information issues observed during the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake disaster may have been mitigated if there simply had been greater availability of official information from primary sources in English.As the de facto language for international communication,information dissemination in English is necessary,and the importance of providing the latest information in English is increasing,even in normal(nondisaster)times.Official information in English is useful not only for foreigners residing in Japan,but also for foreign news organizations.After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake,there were cases where foreign news organizations reported the situation in Japan by collecting comments from non-Japanese Face book users residing in Japan,or by interviewing foreigners who were evacuated from Japan.These situations occurred due to the shortage of English information available to foreign media from domestic sources,and contributed to damaging reputations as a result of misleading or inaccurate reports by foreign media.Disseminating official English information can provide an important source for foreign media,as well as foreigners residing in Japan,and lead to more reliable information dissemination overseas by reducing or preventing the delivery of incorrect or sensational information.

Platforms such as social media and translation applications were used by foreigners unskilled in Japanese to obtain access to translated Japanese information.Because translated information was distributed through the Internet(mainly on social media)after the earthquake,information in Japanese may still be disseminated to those unskilled in Japanese,in some form,if the information is frequently delivered in an appropriate and clear manner on an official website.Such information should be:(1)aware that it will be used for translation by third parties;(2)in clear Japanese and avoiding circumlocution;and(3)containing not only facts but also links to content on decision making and concrete response actions.Previous studies have suggested that information providers tailor their disaster messages to consider the differences in socioeconomic characteristics of their intended audience(Lachlan et al.2010),and the results found here suggest that language proficiency is another factor that should be considered.The observed information translation activities after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake were mainly in English.But the population of foreigners in the Kanto region contained many speakers of Chinese,Korean,Portuguese,and Tagalog.These other major languages represent major communication opportunities into which disaster information could be translated.Provision of clear and appropriate Japanese information in multiple languages would thus enable people of many more nationalities to utilize the various tools available to translate Japanese information into their own language,although the accuracy of said translation may still be unclear.

垫片式转轮静平衡试验工具的优点是省去了丝杠，克服了梯形螺纹间螺距大、加工螺纹与丝杠中心线不垂直的缺点；同时平衡球直接使用轴承球，球的形状、表面粗糙度、硬度均好于自己加工的平衡球，克服了平衡球加工到最高点时线速度为零的缺点。

Secondary sources of information—such as universities and research institutes—served an important role in the aftermath of the earthquake,both for students of those universities and for the general public(Gomez 2013).In the future,they may be expected to actively provide information not only within Japan but also outside Japan.For example,secondary publishing of reliable,translated information in English via the Internet could be an effective means of information dissemination,if university and research institutions were to coordinate information provision from the main Japanese organizations.Such a multilingual disaster information service was provided by the Center for Multilingual Multicultural Education and Research,Tokyo University of Foreign Studies,for 3 months after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.Broader announcement of such activities may have been necessary in future disaster events,because no foreign respondents in the sample mentioned this service in their open response.

6 Conclusion

Although there is a body of literature focusing on populations with unique needs in times of disaster,the findings presented here offer a new perspective by focusing on language proficiency,and how proficiency in a local language,or lack thereof,may affect disaster information gathering behavior and needs,through an investigation conducted after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.The survey found that foreigners proficient in Japanese demonstrated similar information gathering behavior as Japanese respondents,and thus their needs may be covered by conventional disaster mitigation planning that focuses on the general Japanese population.On the other hand,foreigners unskilled in Japanese encountered more dif ficulties due to the language barrier,although they found unique utility in the employment of Internet-based methods for overcoming that barrier.The simplest method to improve future policy and planning for disaster information management would be to increase the provision of information in English or other languages.When only Japaneselanguage information is shared,then the information provider should be aware that people unskilled in Japanese may use various methods to obtain that information in another language,and prepare their information accordingly to facilitate that translate.

Many barriers to disaster information collection and decision making still remain for foreign populations—both in Japan and in other disaster-prone countries with more diverse populations.Although this study has several limitations,the results form a starting point for future consideration and research by demonstrating how lack of local language proficiency may be a potential source of difficulty during disasters.

Acknowledgements This investigation was partially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science(Challenging Exploratory Research, “Investigation on disaster information dissemination to foreigners after the great earthquake in the Tokyo metropolitan area,”Project No.25560161).The authors would like to express their gratitude to all those who assisted and cooperated with the preparation,distribution,analysis,and discussion of the survey investigation and its results.In particular,the authors would like to thank Mr.Takuya Iyama(formerly of the Graduate School of Engineering,The University of Tokyo)for his assistance in summarizing the questionnaire results and Dr.Takanobu Tanaka(NHK Broadcasting Research Institute)for providing information about NHK’s broadcasting activities in foreign languages during disasters.

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),which permits unrestricted use,distribution,and reproduction in any medium,provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s)and the source,provide a link to the Creative Commons license,and indicate if changes were made.

References

Boyle,M.P.,M.Schmierbach,C.L.Armstrong,D.M.McLeod,D.V.Shah,and Z.Pan.2004.Information seeking and emotional reactions to the September 11 terrorist attacks.Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 81(1):155–167.

Bracken,C.C.,L.Jeffres,K.A.Neuendorf,J.Kopfman,and F.Moulla.2005.How cosmopolites react to messages:America under attack.Communication Research Reports 22(1):47–58.

Burke,J.A.,P.A.Spence,and K.A.Lachlan.2010.Crisis preparation,media use,and information seeking during Hurricane Ike:lessons learned for emergency communication.Journal of Emergency Management 8(5):27–37.

Butler,D.2006.Virtual globes:The web-wide world.Nature 439(7078):776–778.

Cabinet Office.2012.Tokyo metropolitan earthquake.http://www.bousai.go.jp/jishin/syuto/index.html.Accessed 8 Apr 2014(in Japanese).

Cabinet Office.2014.A future to reach for Japan.http://www5.cao.go.jp/keizai-shimon/kaigi/special/future/0224/shiryou_01.pdf.Accessed 28 Apr 2016(in Japanese).

Cutter,S.,and K.Barnes.1982.Evacuation behavior and Three Mile Island.Disasters 6(2):116–124.

Elliott,K.A.2011.Reporting on international broadcasting,15 Mar 2011.http://kimelli.nfshost.com/index.php?id=10901.Accessed 28 Apr 2016.

Gomez,O.A.2013.Lessons from international students’reaction to the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake:The case of the School of Engineering at Tohoku University.International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 4(3):137–149.

Goodchild,M.F.2010.Twenty years of progress:GIScience in 2010.Journal of Spatial Information Science 1:3–20.

Hasegawa,S.,K.Sato,S.Matsunuma,M.Miyao,and K.Okamoto.2005.Multilingual disaster information system:Information delivery using graphic text for mobile phones.AI&Society 19(3):265–278.

Henry,M.,A.Kawasaki,I.Takigawa,and K.Meguro.2017.The impact of income disparity on vulnerability and information collection:An analysis of the 2011 Thai flood.Journal of Flood Risk Management 10(3):339–348.

Hibino,J.,S.Matsuura,and R.Shaw.2012.The role of community radio in disasters.Church world service.Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies,Kyoto University and MERCY Malaysia. http://www.preventionweb.net/ files/29931_29931radioalllowres1.pdf.Accessed 28 Apr 2016.

Japan National Tourism Organization.2012.Tourism statistics,statistical data of2011.https://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/ttp/sta/.Accessed 28 Apr 2016.

Jung,J.Y.,and M.Moro.2014.Multi-level functionality of social media in the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake.Disasters 38(S2):S123–S143.

Kawasaki,A.,L.B.Berman,and W.Guan.2013a.The growing role of web-based geospatial technology in disaster response and support.Disasters 37(2):201–221.

Kawasaki,A.,M.Henry,and K.Meguro.2013b.Advisories by foreign governments and the behavior of foreigners residing in Japan after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake.Journal of Social Safety Science 21:219–227(in Japanese).

Kimura,R.2012.Do non-Japanese become vulnerable in a disaster?Society for Intercultural Tanaka,N.Tanaka,Y.Nakamura Japan Newsletter 2012 Spring Index:15–17.

Kowata,Y.,M.Saito,A.Shibata,Y.Sugiuchi,T.Tanaka,N.Tanaka,Y.Nakamura,T.Nitta,Y.Hirotsuka,and K.Yamada.2012.The Great East Japan Earthquake in overseas media:Survey of eight news programs in seven countries.Media Research&Studies 62(3):2–21.

Lachlan,K.A.,P.R.Spence,and C.A.Eith.2010.Access to mediated emergency messages:Differences in crisis knowledge across age,race,and socioeconomic status.In Through the eye of Katrina:Social justice in the United States,2nd edn.,ed.R.Swan and K.Bates,205–222.Durham:Carolina Academic Press.

Lachlan,K.A.,P.R.Spence,X.Lin,and M.Del Greco.2014a.Screaming into the wind:Examining the volume and content of tweets associated with Hurricane Sandy.Communication Studies 65(5):500–518.

Lachlan,K.A.,P.R.Spence,X.Lin,K.M.Najarian,and M.Del Greco.2014b.Twitter use during a weather event:Comparing content associated with localized and nonlocalized hashtags.Communication Studies 65(5):519–534.

Laituri,M.,and K.Kodrich.2008.On line disaster response community:People as sensors of high magnitude disasters using Internet GIS.Sensors 8:3037–3055.

Lester,M.S.1983.Public information during a nuclear power plant accident:Lessons learned from Three Mile Island.Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 59(10):1080–1086.

Lu,H.Y.,D.O.Case,M.L.A.Lustria,N.Kwon,J.E.Andrews,M.A.Cavendish,and B.R.Floyd.2007.Predictors of online information seeking by international students when disaster strikes their countries.Cyber Psychology and Behavior 10(5):709–712.

Maki,N.,H.L.Chen,and S.Suzuki.2009.Response to possible earthquake disasters in the Tokai,Tonankai,and Nankai areas,and their restoration/reconstruction strategies.Journal of Disaster Research 4(2):142–150.

Mileti,D.S.,and P.W.O’Brien.1992.Warnings during disaster:Normalizing communicated risk.Social Problems 39(1):40–57.

Ministry of Economy,Trade and Industry.2011.Trade and economic relation between Japan and the world as seen through the damage caused by Great East Japan Earthquake,White paper on international economy and trade 2011.http://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/data/gWT2011fe.html.Accessed 28 Apr 2016.

Ministry of Justice.2013.Statistics of registered foreigners.http://www.moj.go.jp/housei/toukei/toukei_ichiran_touroku.html.Accessed 28 Apr 2016(in Japanese).

Ministry of Land,Infrastructure,Transport,and Tourism.2014a.Guidelines for preparing initial response countermeasures for foreign travelers visiting Japan when a natural disaster occurs.http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001058526.pdf. Accessed 23 Nov 2017(in Japanese).

Ministry of Land,Infrastructure,Transport,and Tourism.2014b.Guidelines for assuring the safety of foreign travelers visiting Japan.http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001058528.pdf.Accessed 23 Nov 2017(in Japanese).

My Voice Communications.2011.Questionnaire survey on “How to gather information about the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake.”http://www.myvoice.co.jp/biz/surveys/15417/index.html.Accessed 28 Apr 2016(in Japanese).

Nomura Research Institute.2011.Research trends in media contact associated with the earthquake.http://www.nri.co.jp/news/2011/110329.html.Accessed 28 Apr 2016(in Japanese).

Palen,L.2008.Online social media in crisis events.Educause Quarterly 31(3):76–78.

Perez-Lugo,M.2004.Media uses in disaster situations:A new focus on the impact phase.Sociological Inquiry 74(2):210–225.

Piotrowski,C.,and T.R.Armstrong.1998.Mass media preferences in disaster:A study of Hurricane Danny.Social Behavior and Personality 26(4):341–346.

Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet.2013.Action program for realizing tourism-oriented country.http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001000830.pdf.Accessed 28 Apr 2016(in Japanese).

Qu,Y.,P.F.Wu,and X.Wang.2009.Online community response to major disaster:A study of Tianya Forum in the 2008 Sichuan Earthquake.Paper presented at the 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences,5–8 January 2009,Waikoloa,Hawaii,USA.

Sanchanta,M.2011.Japanese,foreign media diverge.The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703 512404576209043550725356.html.Accessed 28 Apr 2016.

Sasaki,K.1995.The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake and foreign residents.Keiei Kenkyu 46(3):105–114(in Japanese).

Shklovski,I.,L.Palen,and J.Sutton.2008.Finding community through information and communication technology during disaster events.In Proceedings of the 2008 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work,8–12 November 2008,San Diego,California,127–136.New York:ACM.

Spence,P.R.,K.A.Lachlan,and J.M.Burke.2008.Crisis preparation,media use,and information seeking:Patterns across Katrina evacuees and lessons learned for crisis communication.Journal of Emergency Management 6(2):11–23.

Spence,P.R.,K.Lachlan,J.M.Burke,and M.W.Seeger.2007a.Media use and information needs of the disabled during a natural disaster.Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 18(2):394–404.

Spence,P.R.,K.A.Lachlan,and D.Griffen.2007b.Crisis communication,race and natural disasters.Journal of Black Studies 37(4):539–554.

Spence,P.R.,K.A.Lachlan,L.D.Nelson,A.K.Shelton.2010.Age,gender,and information-seeking patterns following an urban bridge collapse.Journal of Emergency Management 8(5):47–54.

Spence,P.R.,D.Westerman,and P.Skalski.2005.Proxemic effects on information seeking following the 9/11 attacks.Communication Research Reports 22(1):39–46.

Tanaka,T.,and Y.Hara.2012.The Great East Japan Earthquake:Transition of information transmitted within the 72 hours after the quake:Analyzing TV coverage of the disaster by three Tokyo-based stations.Media Research&Studies 62(3):2–21.

Yonekura,R.2012.Media use and information activities of foreign residents in Japan in the event of disasters from a telephone survey of foreign residents of four nationalities.Media Research and Studies:62–75(in Japanese).

Zhang,C.,T.Zhao,and W.Li.2015.Towards an interoperable online volunteered geographic information system for disaster response.Journal of Spatial Science 60(2):257–275.

Zook,M.,M.Graham,T.Shelton,and S.Gorman.2010.Volunteered geographic information and crowdsourcing disaster relief:A case study of the Haitian Earthquake.World Medical&Health Policy 2(2):7–33.