With the rapid development of information technology, hardware security and credibility, which act as an important part in information security, have attracted significant attention.The physical unclonable function (PUF)[1-2], an emerging cryptographic primitive[3] using intrinsic integrate circuits (IC)to manufacture variables, presents a promising solution for low-cost device authentication and secure key generation.Different from traditional cryptography methods, PUFs extract signatures from complex inherent properties of physical materials rather than storing them in a non-volatile memory.Consequently, the keys generated by the PUF offer the advantages of low cost, volatility, unpredictability and a simple structure.Thus, it serves as an excellent solution for security related applications, such as chip encryption, key storage[4], authentication, FPGA intellectual property (IP)protection and ID generation[1-2,5-6].

Once the PUF is implemented with a nominally symmetric layout, the random mismatches induced by the manufacturing process determine the PUF outputs.However, when the fluctuation caused by the operating conditions is greater than or close to the mismatches, the outputs are likely to change constantly, i.e., poor reliability[7].The conventional method used to improve PUF reliability is based on the use of error correction codes (ECC), while the approach significantly increases the complexity and cost of the design.Furthermore, the correcting code could reveal some important information.Another widely used method is mismatch selection, for instance, adjusting ring oscillator (RO)configuration to select the maximum frequency difference between two ROs with the same layout.Another common approach is to detect the bit-flipping situation of PUF responses by changing the operating conditions (voltage, temperature, aging, etc).However, this approach faces two main issues: 1)It needs to increase additional resources which consist of special voltage regulator circuits and temperature box equipment, etc.2)It will be time-consuming due to the need for tuning operating conditions.To deal with these problems, we propose an effective test approach in FPGAs, utilizing the effect of different complexity of surrounding logic on PUF outputs to discard slices with bit-flipping (unreliable slices)and thus improve PUF reliability.This is achieved by mapping PUFs to cells which are highly reliable.

1　Related Works

Since Gassend et al.[1] proposed silicon PUF for the first time, researchers began to consider the factors affecting PUF reliability.They demonstrated that PUF is susceptible to environmental variations such as temperature, silicon aging[8], voltage[9], and the surrounding logic[10], which make it difficult to produce correct PUF responses.

To increase PUF robustness against environmental variations, one method is to choose the pairs only with large differences in initial frequencies[2].However, the approach mainly faces an issue of high hardware resource overheads.In Ref.[11], data evaluation results show a reliability of 98.3% over the temperature range of 0 to 120 ℃ and 10% fluctuations in the supply voltage.As noted in Ref.[12], to improve PUF reliability, a configurable RO design was proposed, but the configurable oscillator design needs to add other gate units and multiplexers.In Ref.[13], a hybrid RO PUF with improved response stability was presented.Ref.[9] proposed an aging-resistant design which has 3.8% bits of PUF flip over a ten-year operational period due to the aging effect, compared with the conventional RO-PUF.

2　Design and Implementation of PUF

2.1　Ring oscillator PUFs

The proposed RO-PUF structure is shown in Fig.1.The frequency of ring oscillators, composed of an odd number of inverters and some delay components, depends on manufacturing variations.Assuming that the two ROs generate periodical signals with the frequency of fi and fj (i≠j), a final relative comparison of the counter values generates a logical 0 or 1 for this RO pair:

where fi and fj are the frequencies of the i-th RO (ROi)and the j-th RO (ROj), respectively.

Fig.1　RO-PUF structure

2.2　Hard macro design

In our design, the RO-PUFs are implemented on Xilinx Virtex-6 FPGA boards.Each RO consists of four inverters, an NAND gate and a buffer as shown in Fig.2.Four inverters are implemented in a single slice.An NAND gate and a buffer are implemented in a single slice.Fig.2 shows two nearly identical RO1 and RO2, implemented in four slices (slice_XiYj, slice_Xi+2Yj, slice_XiYj+1 and slice_Xi+2Yj+1), the basic division of a Xilinx FPGA.Each slice contains four logic-function generators (or look-up tables).Fig.2 also exhibits the result of estimated delay information between interconnections and gates provided by the Xilinx FPGA Editor.

The configurable logic blocks (CLBs)are the main logic resources for implementing sequential and combinational circuits.Fig.3 shows that a hard macro with local routing for four inverters implemented in slice are completely identical with respect to placement and routing.A CLB element contains one pair of slices.To ensure identical routing for all RO instances, the locations of LUTs and the measurement flip-flops are manually specified using relative location constraint, so that the identical placement of all PUFs can be achieved, which helps increase the uniqueness and randomness of the PUF outputs.

Fig.2　Estimated delays between gates and interconnections (unit: ns)

Fig.3　Hard macro with local routing for four inverters (partial structure of RO)in a symmetrical slice

2.3　Surrounding logic design

After adding simple surrounding logic circuits, 8-bit PUFs are discarded due to unreliability.Fig.7(a)shows the reliability testing results of 128 PUFs which are extracted randomly from the remaining relatively reliable 152-bit PUFs.The mean value of the intra-chip variation in generated 128-bit IDs is equal to 3.69%, meaning that there is only 3.69% unreliable bits occupying the total instantiated PUFs (PUF reliability is 96.31%).

3.摘要和关键词：中英文摘要400字左右，采用叙述性文体和第三人称写法，阐述研究目的、方法、结果和结论，尤其要突出成果创新之处，不加评论。关键词要反映文章的最主要内容，每篇3～8个，中英文对照。

“十三五”时期，随着海洋经济迅速发展，国家“海洋战略”的逐步实施，海上丝绸之路倡议的深入推进，南海海区在多重政策推动下，航标事业作为远海海域、重要战略通道、领海基点、毗连区、边远岛礁、主权岛礁、陆岛交通建设等海上活动载体起到支撑和航海保障作用，面临难得的历史机遇。由于灯桩更加适应其海域需求，施工技术成熟，建设周期较短，维护成本低廉，灯桩建设正逢其时，下面探讨灯桩设计建设一些思路，仅供参考或借鉴。

Fig.4　Position distribution of the surrounding circuits

In the first case, we design a simple surrounding logic circuit, which is composed of 360 ring oscillators.In other words, 36 ring oscillators which are distributed close to the 16 PUFs are used as interference circuits.Their position distribution is shown in Fig.4.Each ring oscillator consists of four inverters and an NAND gate, and the oscillation frequency of the ring oscillator is about 156 MHz.After discarding some of the unreliable slices by adding a surrounding logic circuit, we randomly extract 128-bit PUFs from the remaining relatively reliable PUFs and test their reliability.In the second case, we change the oscillation frequency of the ring oscillator and increase the complexity of the surrounding logic circuit.Here, the complex logic interference is from the 16-bit PUFs added with an extra 32 oscillators, and then the oscillation frequency of the ring oscillator is changed into about 215 MHz.More slices were discarded due to unreliability among the original PUFs.Finally, we randomly extract 128-bit PUFs from the remaining relatively reliable PUFs and test their reliability again.

薛武对公司党建工作提出三个要求：一是深入领会全面从严治党新要求，结合实际抓好贯彻落实。二是坚持和加强党的全面领导，推动公司党的建设和改革发展、生产经营紧密融合，从抓认识提高、抓组织建设、抓作用发挥、抓目标融合四个方面下功夫。三是坚持问题导向，坚定不移推动全面从严治党向纵深发展。要树立问题意识，做好巡视整改“后半篇文章”，聚焦主责主业，切实履行管党治党责任，做到超前思考，系统谋划好明年工作。

As shown in the black border in Fig.4, we can first implement 16-bit PUFs on the FPGA.Surrounding logic circuits with various complexity are applied to interfere with the 16-bit PUF circuits, and then the bits which make PUF circuits unstable (the bit-flipping bits)are discarded.There are two cases where surrounding logic circuit can act as a disturbance source, which are analyzed and discussed as follows.

3　Experimental Results and Analysis

After adding complex surrounding logic, more 6-bit PUFs are discarded due to unreliability from the 152-bit PUFs.Fig.7(b)shows the reliability testing result of 128 PUFs which are extracted randomly from the remaining relatively reliable 146-bit PUFs.We find that the mean value of the intra-chip variation in generated 128-bit IDs is equal to 2.00%, meaning that the average intra-chip Hamming distance is less than 2.6 bits in generated 128-bit IDs (reliability probability is 98.00%).It also indicates that our proposed methodology can effectively improve PUF reliability when taking surrounding logic into account.

由于α-姜黄烯、α-姜烯和姜黄新酮等特征性共有峰对照品不易得，所以本实验选用β-石竹烯（S峰）为参照物，依据国家颁布的《中药注射剂指纹图谱研究的技术要求》，通过采用不同批次黄丝郁金药材样品，建立对照指纹图谱，根据对照指纹图谱的特征以及其参照峰（β-石竹烯），确定了22个共有峰。其中23号色谱峰虽然在每批样品中也都存在，而且含量约占黄丝郁金挥发油的50%，却并不是18批样品的共有峰，原因是23号色谱峰可能是由于芳基姜黄酮和姜黄酮未达到分离而共同形成的一个色谱峰，实验中曾考察了不同色谱柱和不同升温程序，但最终仍然未使之分离，如何优化实验条件使之完全分离有待进一步研究。

一个国家的综合实力包括硬实力和软实力。硬实力是一国的经济实力代表，而“软实力”是以文化为主的实力。硬实力和软实力是缺一不可的。因此，中国的图书出口贸易不只是代表着国家的“软实力”的直接形式，也代表了我国的经济文化的国家竞争力。鉴于这个重大的现实意义，笔者选择这一论题进行研究。

Tab.1　RO-PUF quality results after interference by simple and complex surrounding logic

InterferencetypeOriginalPUFsizeUnreliablePUFsRemainingPUFsExtractedPUFsizeSimpleinterference1608152128Complexinterference1526146128

3.1　Uniqueness

We used our in-house data to validate the uniqueness and reliability of our approach.The PUFs are changed from 0 to 120 ℃ and the core voltage from 0.85 to 1.2 V, so that we can determine the percentage of flip in PUF response bit-streams under environmental variations.Fig.5 shows the histograms of the inter-chip HD for our 8RO-PUF outputs under a normal temperature of 20 ℃.The mean Hamming distance of each histogram is 49.78%.Experimental results show that our PUF has near-ideal uniqueness.

Fig.5　Hard uniqueness profile under different FPGA configuration logic blocks and chips

3.2　Reliability

3.2.1　Reliability of original PUFs

To evaluate the reliability of PUFs without any surrounding logic circuits, the intra-chip HD is defined as the Hamming distance between the response sequences when realizing all sample data on the same chip under different operating conditions (Temperature varies from 0 to 120 ℃ and voltage changes from 0.85 to 1.2 V).Here, the core supply voltage is 1 V.As can be seen in Fig.6, the mean value of the intra-chip variation in the implemented original RO-PUFs with 128-bit IDs is equal to 5.77% (PUF reliability is 94.23%), meaning that the average intra-chip Hamming distance (Dintra)is less than 7.4 bits from the 128-bit IDs.It also indicates that the original PUFs without any surrounding logic circuits have relatively low reliability.

As shown in Tab.1, it reflects clear results after interference by simple and complex surrounding logic.We can find that after being interfered with by performing simple logic circuit, eight PUFs among them are discarded due to unreliability, and then we continue to add more complex surrounding circuits close to the remaining 152 PUF circuits.The data shows that other six unreliable PUFs have been found.

Fig.6　Reliability under voltage and temperature variations for RO-PUF

3.2.2　Reliability test after processing

In this paper, we present an effective reliability test methodology, by taking full advantage of surrounding logic circuits, to discard unsuitable slices, i.e., units which make PUF unstable after mapping into cells.First, we instantiate an array of original 128 PUFs with the hard macro implemented on the FPGA hardware resource.Meanwhile, the surrounding slices of original PUFs are manually disabled by using relative location constraints to obtain the original PUFs without interference.Then, the original 128-bit PUFs reliability tests are performed under a wide range of operating conditions.

To demonstrate the positive effects of the presented strategies on the quality of RO-PUFs, we first implemented 160 PUFs on the FPGA hardware resource, and then added surrounding logic near the 160 PUF instances and discarded these unreliable PUFs with bit-flipping.

(a)

(b)

Fig.7　Reliability result.(a)Simple interference; (b)Complex interference

3.3　Randomness

The NIST statistical test suite established for evaluating random number generators is used to prove PUF randomness.Tab.2 gives the detailed test results, from which we conclude that our proposed PUF passes the randomness test and acquires good randomness.In addition, this resource overhead used in the PUF implementation in this paper is analyzed.The counters used to implement 128 PUFs take up 4 096 LUTs, accounting for 2.7% of the total resources and the flip flops used 3 840, accounting for 2.5% of the total resources.The logic gates for 128 pairs of ROs occupy 1 536 LUTs, accounting for 1% of the total resources.In short, the hardware resources used in this paper are relatively small compared to other methods.

Tab.2　Measured NIST test suite results of ten chips under normal conditions (20 ℃,1 V)

ParametersPvalueFrequency0．574000FFT0．561658Linearcomplexity0．320837Runs0．574000Blockfrequency0．574000Cumulativsum(1)0．334146Cumulativsum(2)0．574000Longestruns0．106882Approximateentropy0．999878NonoverlappingtemplatePassUniversalPassRandomexcursionsPassRandomexcursionsvariantPass

3.4　Quality improvement analysis

To validate the positive effect of surrounding logic on the circuit delay, a certification experiment was carried out.As the impact of temperature on PUF is very small relative to voltage[14], we focus on the voltage change on PUF in this paper, and then try to find the environmental changes.For example, the voltage increasing from 0.85 to 1.2 V causes a higher level of noise in FPGA’s PUF response.Fig.8 shows the total unstable bits of 128 RO-PUF responses under different supply voltages.The golden PUF line represents the unreliable bits of the original 128 RO-PUF responses without added surrounding logic.Case 1 and Case 2 in Fig.8 represent the unreliable bits of the 128 RO-PUF responses which are added to by a simple and complex surrounding logic, respectively.Apparently, the number of unreliable PUFs is significantly reduced.This indicates that the PUF reliability has been greatly improved, so it has a higher robustness against a change in the external environment.This can be explained as follows: The temperature or voltage variation produced by the surrounding circuit activity results in changes in the electrical parameters, and also affects the speed of digital signals.As a consequence, the entire power supply voltage of PUFs is affected by the surrounding logic activity.

Fig.8　Effect of voltage on RO-PUF

The characterization metrics comparison for related works of PUFs is shown in Tab.3.In our work, in order to test the PUF randomness, 128-bit PUF-bit-streams are implemented in ten Xilinx Virtex-6 FPGAs.The temperature and voltage variations caused by the surrounding circuit activity result in changes in the power supply voltage of PUFs.By taking full advantage of surrounding logic circuit, the uniqueness and reliability reached 49.78% and 98.00%, respectively, under different temperatures (0 to 120 ℃)and voltages (0.85 to 1.2 V).Although the reliability of PUF in Ref.[9] is 0.45% higher than our results (see Tab.3), our earlier research shows that the influence of voltage on circuit delay is much greater that of temperature[14].Therefore, based on the voltage changes of ±2% from 1.2 V nominal supply reported in Ref.[9], we increased its voltage changes by more than 13%, which improved the reproduction ability of the PUF against environmental variations.

①目前高程4 046 m以下坝体变形已基本完成。新填筑的高程4 046 m以上坝体完工期沉降值为40.6 cm。

Tab.3　Comparison of the characterization metrics of PUFs

PUFRef．[6]Ref．[9]Ref．[13]ThisworkUniqueness/%64．7047．7850．4249．78Reliability/%96．9698．4597．2298．00RandomnessNANANAPassPUFIDsize/bits12812850128Conditions0．9to1．2V0to85℃±2%Vdd-40to120℃±15%Vdd0to120℃

Since surrounding logic activity has a significant effect on the delay of the circuit, in order to improve PUF reliability, the bit flipping rate of the PUF response is reduced.This is achieved by identifying and discarding the unsuitable slices which makes PUF output unstable.Experimental results show that PUF reliability is increased from 94% to 98%, leading to robustness improvement against environmental variations.

4　Conclusion

PUF reliability is seriously unstable as the fluctuations of environmental factors can make it difficult to reproduce identical output.In order to improve PUF reliability, we propose an effective stability test scheme, through which reliable slices and unreliable slices are distinguished.After that, by mapping PUF cells to reliable slices, PUF reliability can be effectively improved.The ring oscillator with multiple complexity and multiple frequencies can identify different unstable slices.The higher the complexity, the more unstable slices are detected.The proposed design has a lower hardware complexity than previous designs.Experimental results show that the proposed PUF has better PUF properties in terms of uniqueness and robustness.Moreover, it is shown that the proposed design is also robust with respect to process, voltage, and temperature variations.

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