Introduction

Community forestry is used to manage forest resources to bene fi t neighboring communities by focusing on conservation and restoration of areas where resource depletion and social decline occurred in the past(Brendler and Carey 1998).It avoids deforestation and degradation by implementing protective measures(Banskota et al.2007),and encourages decentralized forest administration and empowerment of local people(Karky 2005).Community forestry attracts various actors and stakeholders including the state,private enterprises,and local forest users who seek to satisfy their economic,political and social needs(Hobley and Malla 1996).Community forestry organizes local forest users into community forest user groups(CFUGs)that manage forests,harvest forest products,and set market prices with the help of an executive committee elected by the CFUG assembly(Gilmour and Fisher 1998;Chhetri and Lund 2012).

Community forestry policies were established in Nepal as a response to institutional failure which had resulted in progressive degradation of hill forests(Ojha et al.2009).In the 1970s,local users’participation in forest management was reconsidered by the government after recognizing the effectiveness and bene fi ts of common property management(Brown et al.2002;Chhetri and Lund 2012;Pokharel 2012).It was legally implemented in Nepal with the 1993 Forest Act and the 1995 Forest Rules,and it was operationally based on the co-operation of Forest Department Of fi cers and CFUGs(Pokharal 2001;Satyal Pravat and Humphreys 2013).

Community forest management(CFM)has helped to enhance forest cover,conserve biodiversity and produce forest goods to support subsistence livelihoods(Karky and Skutsch 2010;Zenteno et al.2013).Community managed forests in Nepal are promoting sustainable use of forest resources by encouraging natural regeneration and protecting seedlings(Moss 2012).Patel et al.(2013)demonstrated improvement in forest condition under CFM,showing that it is a proven model for controlling deforestation and forest degradation.Communities have easier access to fi rewood,timber,fodder,litter and grass due to communityconservationandmanagementofforests(Banskota et al.2007).

Soil erosion has been reduced and carbon stock has been increased in hilly areas after implementation of community forest management programs(Banskota et al.2007).A total of 1,798,733 ha of forest was transferred to management by 18,960 CFUGs in Nepal(DoF 2015).The large forest area suggests great potential for carbon sequestration.The dynamics of carbon sequestration in forests is affected by both economic and biological phenomena,and these are questions for future researches(Upadhyay et al.2005).

Bhatta(2004)reported that the above ground carbon in natural forest and community forest ranged from 92 to 113 t ha-1and 55 to 67 t ha-1,respectively,in mixed broad leaved forests of Phulchowki Watershed in Lalitpur District,Nepal.He reported carbon stock in soil in natural forest and community forest at 195–223 and 150–160 t ha-1,respectively.Khanal(2007)reported total carbon stock of 25 t ha-1in Champadevi CF of Kathmandu District,Nepal.Dahal(2007)observed that the above ground carbon in pine forest and mixed broad-leaf forest was 116±16 and 26±8 t ha-1,respectively,in Sunaulo Ghampe Danda CF in Kathmandu District,Nepal.The soil organic carbon in pine forest and mixed broad-leaf forest was 10±1 and 25±1 t ha-1,respectively.The carbon sequestration rates in pine forest and mixed broadleaf forest were 1 and 3 t ha-1a-1,respectively.

体质与睡眠也存在千丝万缕的关系。随着生物—心理—社会医学模式渐渐受到关注。付桂玲调查结果显示在临床上SAHS患者肥胖人比较多，相对应的就是痰湿质显多。中医肥胖痰湿体质类型是SAHS发病的重要关键，具有倾向性。朱颖文对120例阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征与中医体质的相关性进行探究，认为中医体质是多元化的，以痰湿质、血瘀质、气虚质、气郁质为常见体质类型，痰湿质、血瘀质与病情的严重程度有关系，而且痰湿质、气郁质对诱发心律失常有一定影响。综上，通过对SAHS中医体质的研究，可以在一定程度上为中医防治方法学更上一个台阶。

黄侃先生在《音略》[8]中将庄、初、崇、生归入精、清、从、心。清人钱大昕已论及照系三等字和端组关系密切。传世以及出土文献中都有不少章组与端组相通的例证。据此，则不能将照二归精、照三归端确定为楚方言的声母特点。郭点楚简中的通假字反映出的声母使用情况直接印证了上古音中“照二归精”“照三归端”的两大重要结论。

Karky(2008)conducted a study in three community forest of Manang,Lalitpur and Ilam Districts of Nepal.He reported that the average carbon pool size of a community managed forest was 138 t ha-1including soil organic carbon.Also,the annual incremental rate of carbon sequestration in CF ranged from 2 to 7 t ha-1a-1 excluding soil organic carbon.Gurung(2009)conducted a pilot study in the western Terai of Nepal and estimated the average forest carbon stock at 231 t ha-1.The estimated carbon stock above and below ground,and SOC were 68,18,and 143 t ha-1,respectively.Similarly,Thagunna(2009)estimated the total carbon stock of 78 t ha-1in Bailbanda Buffer Zone CF in Kanchanpur District,Nepal.

Aryal(2010)estimated the total carbon stock at 167 and 102 t ha-1in pine forest and mixed broad-leaf forest,respectively,in Toudol Chhap CF of Bhaktapur District,Nepal.Dhakal(2010)reported that total carbon stock was highest in naturally regenerated forest(182±26 t ha-1),followed by planted forest(159±32 t ha-1)and enriched forest(134±37 t ha-1)in Pashupati CF of Sarlahi District,Nepal.ICIMOD et al.(2010)studied carbon stocks in 104 community forests of three watershed areas of Nepal,viz.Kayarkhola of Chitwan District,Charnawati of Dolakha District,and Ludhikhola of Gorkha District.Forest carbon stocks in dense and sparse strata of Kayarkhola,Charnawati and Ludikhola watershed were 296 and 257,229 and 167,216 and 163 t ha-1,respectively.

根据近年各方面的研究，总体认为水利现代化有以下几方面的特性：一是水利现代化是经济社会现代化的重要组成部分，必须融入经济社会现代化建设大系统，与相关领域现代化进程协调配合，并适度超前发展；二是水利现代化是动态发展的过程，基本实现水利现代化，是适应经济社会基本现代化要求而确定的水利发展进程中的阶段性目标；三是水利现代化具有明显的地域性，不同资源条件、不同经济社会发展状态，水利现代化建设的目标和任务也不同；四是建设水利现代化，需要全社会的通力协作、共同推进，需要广大公众的广泛参与、密切配合，水利现代化建设成果必须得到社会公众的广泛认同。

Numerousstudiesconducted in Nepalseparately addressed aspects of community forest management,forest resource use,and carbon stocks.But,few studies addressed all three aspects of community forestry in combination.Our research aimed to answer three questions about Nepal’s community forests:(1)What are the levels of forest resource harvest?(2)What are carbon stock levels?and,what is the status of forest management?To answer these questions,we undertook case studies of two community forests in central and western Nepal from 2010 to 2015.

泰国政府出台了一系列政策促进医疗旅游行业的发展，提高外国游客到泰国接受医疗服务的意愿和信心，对于泰国医疗旅游业的发展起到了极为重要的作用(表1)，比如，“魅力泰国运动”(Amazing Thailand)增强了泰国SPA、医院和草药产品的吸引力；2001年的30泰株健康服务项目，为私立医疗机构发展提供了机遇；泰国政府为医疗旅游者和外国退休者设立了一个新的签证类别，提高赴泰医疗旅游的便利性。2012年，泰国卫生部、商务部和泰国旅游理事会等建立协同工作机制，希望将泰国建设成为“亚洲健康旅游中心”[4]。

Materials and methods

Study area

借由“反高潮”的叙事策略突转，张爱玲渲染出了悲悯苍凉的美学基调，带我们由世俗的外核进入到了生命的本质，达到对世俗生命和生存状态的审视：在那“呱呱啼叫的人性”里，越是追求彻底、完美、圆满，就越发会领悟到现实的不彻底、不完美、不圆满。在这些有意为之的“艳异空气的突然跌落”背后，张爱玲表达出了对人性的悲观意识、对生活的反讽意识，以及对社会的旁观意识。“反高潮”的处理，构成了张爱玲小说的召唤性，使人们的既定期待视野与小说的最终呈现之间表现出不一致性，作品的接受也通过对熟悉经验的否定造成情感体验层面和价值判断层次的新变化，文学的功能也由此体现。

The study was conducted in two community forest of Nepal,Gwangkhola Sapaude Babiyabhir Community Forest(GSBCF)in the western hills near Pokhara(Fig.1)and Ka fl e Community Forest(KCF)in the central hills of Nepal near Kathmandu(Fig.2).The two forests had similar area but were located in different regions of Nepal.The two forests were similar in elevation range(900–2000 m asl.)and climate.Because community forestry management has proven successful in the hilly regions of Nepal,this study could provide the status of biomass of community forest.

Case I

GSBCF was handed over to 205 users in 2000 and the operational plan was renewed for the fi rst time in 2006.Its elevation is 930–1325 m asl.and it covered an area of92 ha.The study site supported temperate deciduous forest dominated by Castanopsis indica and Schima wallichi on gentle slopes and Pinus wallichiana and Pinus roxburghi on steep slopes.To help in proper utilization and management of community forest,there were 13 members of the CFUG committee,inclusive of gender and marginalized communities(GSBCFOP 2006;K C et al.2014).

Fig.1 Map of GSBCF with sample plots

Case II

KCF was a block of 94 ha managed by 70 households.It was handed over to CFUG in 1994 and its operational plan was renewed for the second time in 2008.There were 11 members of the CFUG committee,inclusive of gender and marginalized communities.KCF was at 1830–1930 m asl.and was dominated by temperate deciduous species,particularly Schima wallichi,Castanopsis indica,Pinus wallichiana and Pinus roxburghi(CFOP 2008;Karky 2008).

Field data collection

Males and females of CFUG were involved equally in thinning,meetings and guarding of the forest.Forest thinning was compulsory for taking green wood and was carried out by actively involved households during winter.The meetings of KCFUG management committee were conducted once per month for conservation,management and distribution of forest resources.A meeting allowance of US$0.31(NR 25)was paid to each member present at the meeting to encourage attendance.Meetings were convened to plan awareness programs for presentation at festivals and gathering of people for awareness generation on conservation of forest.Local people guarded the forest to stop illegal hunting and cutting of trees.A fi nancial incentive of US$0.63(NR 50)per day was paid for effective conservation and management of the forest.

Fig.2 Map of KCF with sample plots

For the fi rst fi eld study at GSBCF,pilot inventory was done on 5–20 October,2010 and the detailed fi eld work was carried out on 1–25 April,2011.For the second fi eld study,pilot inventory was done on 7–13 August,2014 and the detailed fi eld work was conducted from 20 September to 10 October,2014.Similarly,for the fi rst fi eld study in KCF,pilot inventory was conducted on 7–14 September,2012 while detailed fi eld work was carried out on 2–20 November,2012.For the second fi eld study at KCF,pilot inventory was done on 10–15 June,2014 and detailed fi eld work was carried out on 7–27 July,2014.

Random sampling was used for carbon stock measurement and household surveys.For carbon stock estimation in GSBCF and KCF,40 and 20 sample plots of 250 m2 each were sampled,respectively.For carbon stock measurement,national guidelines prepared by MoFSC(2011)and adopted by K C et al.(2013)were used during data collection in the fi eld.Above ground tree biomass(AGTB)and above ground sapling biomass(AGSB)was calculated by measuring height and diameter of trees and saplings.As explained in the national guideline of Nepal,plants having stem diameter＜1 cm were considered to be leaf litter,herbs,grasses(LHG),plants with stem diameters of 1–5 cm were considered saplings,and plants with stem diameters＞5 cm were categorized as trees.Samples of LHG and soil were collected in the fi eld and analyzed at the laboratory of Tribhuvan University Central Department of Environmental Sciences,Kirtipur for carbon content,following methods similar to those used by Aryal et al.(2013).Organic carbon was measured using the method of Walkley and Black(1934).

Socio-economic surveys

About 160 households in GSBCFUG were involved in conservation,management and use of forest products.Collection of dry and green fi rewood was allowed only once per year during thinning of forests in winter.About 1125 kg of fi rewood was provided to each user group from dead trees,old trees and branches.People were also allowed to enter in the forest for fodder collection throughout the year.About 900 kg of fodder was harvested annually by each actively involved household.Mostly women and children harvest fodder and dry leaf litter while both males and females participate in thinning and removal of fi rewood from the forest.Timber was allowed to the CFUG members during construction of a private and community building.There was provision of one tree at a reduced cost for the construction of new building.Construction timber was supplied at no cost for the rehabilitation of houses of CFUG members destroyed by fi re and landslide.

Data analysis

For analyzing carbon stock from fi eld and laboratory data,guidelines prepared by MoFSC(2011)and adopted by K C et al.(2013)were used.As explained in the national guideline of Nepal,the allometric equation of moist forest stand developed by Chave et al.(2005)was used for measuring above-ground tree biomass as the annual precipitation of the study area was between 1400 and 4000 mm.The national allometric biomass equation and table of Nepal developed jointlybyDepartmentofForestResearchandSurveyandthe Department of Forest,Tree Improvement,and Silviculture Component was used to calculate above-ground sapling biomass.Theequationforleaflitter,herbsandgrassgivenin the guideline and the equation for measuring soil organic carbon(SOC)developed by Pearson et al.(2007)were also used.The root-to-shoot ratio value of 1:5 developed by MacDicken(1997)was used for calculating below-ground biomass.The default carbon fraction of 0.47 described in IPCC(2006)was used for converting all forms of biomass into carbon content.Carbon stock data and socioeconomic data are shown here in graphical and tabular form while information on use of forest products and management strategies of the forest are described in the text.

Results

The total population of the GSBCFUG was 1070 of which females numbered 590(Table 1).Large numbers of adult males wereout of theirvillagefor education and employment in abroad and in larger cities of Nepal.Most females stayed in the village to look after their children,elderly people,houses and livestock.Majority of people were between 11 and 49 years of age(580 out of 1070).These people were involved in utilization,conservation,and management of the community forest.Agriculture was the main occupation of GSBCFUG.Villagers used traditional agricultural methods which yielded very less output.The total amount of shrubland owned by 205 GSBCFUG was 39.25 ha(0.19 ha/HH).Very little private forest was owned by the GSBCFUG in the village(0.02 ha/HH).This shows the dependency of people on CF for forest resources.The major livestock owned by the GSBCFUG were buffalo,cow,ox and goat with an average of 5.4 animals per household.More people kept goats(3.6 ind./HH)as it was the main source of meat.People kept buffalo and cows for milk and milk products and oxen for tilling the agricultural fi eld.Most families kept buffalo(190 out of 205)and ox(100 out of 205)for tilling the farm fi elds.Some families that owned buffaloes and cows had biogas as an alternative energy source which helped in reducing use of fi rewood.

Socioeconomic Status of the CFUG

Case I

Forest resource use and management

We assessed the status of resource utilization and management by household surveys in each CFUG.In GSBCFUG and KCFUG,105 and 36 households were sampled,respectively,accounting for more than 50% of total households.The objective of the HH survey was to collect data on socio-economic status and bene fi ts distributionstatus within theCFUGs.Also,thecontributionofCFUGstomanagement of community forest(CF)was assessed from HH surveys.Three focus group discussions(FGD),one each with the CFUG executive committee members,educated people,and youth were conducted in both CFUGs to collect detailed information about the management and bene fi ts distribution of CF.We also conducted fi ve key informant interviews(KII)ineachCFUGwithlocalpoliticalleadersandeducated people to get more information about the status of forest product use and management of the CF.

In GSBCFUG,people were involved in plantation of trees on barren land near the forest area.Both males and females were involved in meetings and in forest thinning.It was compulsory for CFUG to be involved in forest thinning to take green wood.People were self-disciplined so no forest monitor was needed in the CFUG.Meetings of the management committee were conducted occasionally to help in conservation,management,and distribution of forest resources.The meetings were convened for planningfuture activities of CFUG and deciding the harvest and revenue collection procedure from the forest.

3.4.2 深化推进能源机制创新，鼓励多种能源利用方式。加强需求侧管理，进一步优化峰谷电价、季节性电价和居民及工商业气价，引导电力、天然气消费。推进能源交易创新，探索燃气大用户直供。开展分布式光伏、分散式风电、分布式供能等发电市场化交易。落实可再生能源配额制，结合国家可再生能源配额制要求，将相关指标直接下达电网企业、配售电企业和用户责任主体。建立和完善各区新能源碳排放抵扣及新能源能耗抵扣政策，调动用户侧发展新能源积极性。同时制定响应政策机制，鼓励引导试点实现“虚拟电站”、“加电站”、“加氢站”等各种高效能源形式，进一步降低峰谷电量。

Table 1 Socioeconomic status of GSBCFUG

Population Landholding status Livestock holding status Category No. % Category Amount of land(ha) Average(ind./HH) Category No. Average(ind./HH)Male 480 44.86 Shrubland 39.25 0.19 Buffalo 190 0.93 Female 590 55.14 Unirrigated land 36.35 0.17 Cow 85 0.41 Total 1070 100.00 Irrigated land 34.15 0.17 Ox 100 0.49 Below 10 years 225 21.03 Private forest 3.45 0.02 Goat 740 3.61 Between 11–49 years 580 54.21 Total 113.20 0.55 Total 1115 5.44 Above 50 years 265 24.77

Vegetation structure and carbon stock

Trees of DBH class 10–20 cm occurred in the forest at highest density and had increased from 208 to 225 per hectare from 2011 to 2014(Fig.3).The density of trees of DBH class＞20 cm had increased from 98 to 112 tree ha-1 from 2011 to 2014.This shows that the forest was dominated by newly grown trees after the implementation of CFM.All forms of biomass had increased in 2014 from levels recorded in 2011 in GSBCF.Above-ground tree biomass(AGTB)had increased from 126.3 in 2011 to 170.4 t ha-1in 2014.Above-ground sapling biomass(AGSB)and leaf litter,herb and grass biomass(LHG)contributed less to total biomass in 2014 than in 2011.The total carbon stock in 2014 was 155.04 t ha-1as compared to 122.29 t ha-1in 2011.Above-ground tree carbon increased from 59.36 in 2011 to 80.09 t ha-1in 2014(Fig.4).The carbon stock in AGSB and LHG was low compared to tree and soil carbon.The annual sequestration rate of carbon was 8.19 t ha-1including SOC while annual atmospheric CO2mitigation potential was 30.03 t ha-1.

Fig.3 Trees per hectare in GSBCF

Fig.4 Carbon Stock of GSBCF

In KCFUG,30 households were actively involved in conservation,management and utilization of forest products.Harvest of dry fi rewood,dry leaves and fodder was permitted throughout the year for immediate use while harvest of green fi rewood was allowed once per year during forest thinning in winter.After thinning of the forest,about 900 kg of fi rewood was provided to each user group from the dead trees,old trees and branches.Extraction of timber was allowed after the approval by the community forest management committee.The allotments of fi rewood and timber exceeded the needs of the user group so any surplus timber was sold to generate income for work in forest conservation,management and community development.In 2013,timber was sold for US$1875(150,000 Nepali Rupees[NRs])at the rate of US$0.5/m3(NR 40/m3).

Socioeconomic status of CFUG

The total population of the KCFUG was 371 with 48%male(Table 2).The male and female population data was similar to that of GSBCFUG.The independent people aged 11–49 years were more(54%)than the dependent population(46%).Nearly equal areas of irrigated land(0.18 ha)and non-irrigated land(0.19 ha)were owned,on average,by each household.People were engaged in commercial agriculture and had grown improved vegetables and fruits.More adults were involved in the service sector than in agriculture because the study site was near Kathmandu where demand for services was high.No shrubland or private forest was owned by CFUG members so they were totally dependent on the community forest for forest products.Due to the involvement of people in commercial agriculture and the service sector,fewer livestock were held by households that was the case in the recent years.The major livestock domesticated by the KCFUGs were cow(0.8 ind./HH)and goat(0.3 ind./HH)with average livestock of one animal per household.

Table 2 Socioeconomic status of KCFUG

Population Landholding status Livestock holding status Category No. % Category Amount of land(ha) Average(ind./HH) Category No. Average(ind./HH)Male 178 47.90 Unirrigated land 11.94 0.19 Cow 55 0.79 Female 193 52.10 Irrigated land 11.25 0.18 Goat 18 0.26 Total 371 100.00 Total 23.19 0.55 Total 73 1.05 Below 10 years 66 17.75 Between 11–49 years 202 54.44 Above 50 years 103 27.81

Forest resource use and management

Case II

当然，光营造氛围还是不够的，利丰雅高同时也在用“智慧”用人留人：1.提供广阔的平台，给予员工充足的信任。相信每个人都是发自内心地努力做好自己的本职工作，放手让员工完成自己的工作，建立管理者和员工之间的双向信任；2.建立健全培训制度和培养机制。员工培训有利于激发员工积极性、提高员工满意度，增强凝聚力。外部营造氛围，内部完善体系，由内而外落到实处。

The study was conducted from 2010 to 2015 at different seasons of the year.Primary data consisted of the measurement of biomass,household(HH)surveys,focus group discussions(FGD)and key informant interviews(KII).Secondary data was taken from published materialin books,journals,newspapers,research reports and the Community Forestry Operational Plans.Pilot inventory was conducted before each fi eld visit to the study area.During pilot inventory,one FGD was conducted with the CFUG executive committee to involve them in data collection.Also,the boundary of the forest was tracked using GPS and block division of the forest was done for sample plot demarcation.

Vegetation structure and carbon stock

At KCF,trees of DBH 10–20 cm occurred at highest density of 220 tree ha-1in 2014 (Fig.5).Trees of DBH＞20 cm occurred at the lowest density of 105 tree·ha-1in 2014.Thus,the forest was dominated by younger trees after the implementation of CFM.Comparing the 2014 data with that of 2012,tree density had increased.Above ground sapling biomass,leaf litter,herb and grass biomass and below ground biomass were 3.8,1.5 and 26.9 t ha-1,respectively.Total biomass in 2012 was 154.8 t ha-1while that in 2014 was 161.8 t ha-1.Biomass in all forms in 2014 was greater than in 2012.Carbon stock in all forms of plants in 2014 was greater than in 2012 but soil organic carbon was less than in 2012(Fig.6).Total carbon stock in 2014 was 110.1 t ha-1,slightly greater than 107.1 t ha-1in 2012.Annual carbon sequestration rate was 1.5 t ha-1,while annual atmospheric CO2mitigation potential was 5.6 t ha-1.

(3)目标价格政策带来的福利损失高达35.46%，且替代弹性越大，福利损失越高。从目标价格提高带来的福利水平变化来看，由于生产者福利和消费者福利的增加都来自政府补贴，而生产者福利和消费者福利增加量占政府支出的比重分别为12.82%和51.71%，这意味着有35.46%的政府支出成为无谓效率损失，并且国产大豆和进口大豆的替代性越强，这种效率损失就越高。替代弹性越大，意味着实际的市场开放程度越高，此时对生产者补贴越多则对市场扭曲越严重，无谓效率损失的增加可以理解为市场开放的代价。

Discussions

Fig.5 Trees per ha in KCF

Population structure,education,landholding and livestock holding status of the household directly in fl uenced the community forest similar to the study of Adhikari(2003).The male population was less than the female population in both CFUGs,re fl ecting the national pattern of CBS(2012)of Nepal.Most adult males were out of their villages in search of education and employment opportunities in larger cities of Nepal(K C et al.2015).It shows that there was more involvement of females in forest conservation and management as reported by Chhetri et al.(2013).Both males and females,including their children,harvested forest products as reported by Rijal et al.(2011).The proportion of the active population of 11–49 years in the user group was similar to the national average(CBS 2011).A high proportion of active population in the user groups indicates higher potential to contribute to sustainable management,conservation,and enhancement of community forest(Ghazoul et al.(2010).

As agriculture and animal husbandry are supported by Nepal’s forests(Meshack et al.2006),they need to be addressed for assessing impacts of community forestry.Traditional subsidence agriculture were practiced on irrigated and unirrigated lands held by the CFUGs as reported by Adhikari et al.(2007).Agricultural production on the limited private land holdings is suf fi cient for a few months of the year and the remaining food requirement is purchased from markets,as reported by Meshack et al.(2006).Households with larger landholdings,particularly private forest and shrubland,depended less on forest products from the community forest,as reported by Chhetri et al.(2013).Households having more livestock participated more in forest resource utilization and were more dependent on forest resources,as reported by Chhetri et al.(2013).

综合上述各种理论，Doolittle指出尽管就合作学习的构成还未完全达成一致，但其中五大要素是至关重要的：1）积极的相互依靠，2）面对面的互动，3）个人的义务4）小组&人际沟通技巧，5）团队自我评估。

Fig.6 Carbon Stock of KCF

Forest resources such as timber, fi rewood,fodder and leaf litter were harvested from the forest,as reported by Ianni et al.(2010),Pokharel(2012),Chhetri et al.(2013)and K C et al.(2015).Some community forests ban timber harvest in the interest of protecting forest resources(Meshack et al.2006).The CFUGs were allowed to harvest green wood once annually during winter,as reported by Adhikari et al.(2007).Villagers began to use lique fi ed petroleum gas(LPG)for cooking and Electricity for heating and lighting as alternatives to the use of fi rewood.CFUGs held fewer livestock than in earlier years and had begun to feed commercial fodder as an alternative to green fodder from the forest.After the establishment of the community forest,use of forest resource was controlled and managed by the CFUG committee.Local people began to use alternative sources of fodder,fuelwood and timber,and this prevented the destruction of the forest.Due to the enhancement of living standards resulting from receipt of remittances and involvement in service sectors,villagers harvested fewer forest resources in 2014 compared to the past.Villagers were motivated to protect the forest.As a result,increase in population and numbers of forest users did not affect the harvest rate of forest resources.

Households were involved in decision making and design of institutions to regulate resource use and manage con fl ict resolution,as reported by Adhikari and Lovett(2006)and Sreedharan and Matta(2010).The general meeting of CFUGs was conducted once each year to discuss the income status,activities and planning of the management committee.Forest guards were not necessary at GSBCF and were voluntary at KCF,similar to the report of Pokharel(2012).Decision making by villagers on forest access and use and management of forest resources had positive outcomes on forest conservation,as reported by Hayes and Persha(2010).Due to improved conservation of the forest and less human interference,local people perceived that wild animals such as leopard,porcupine,monkey and birds had increased in the forest.

Greater numbers of trees of DBH＜20 cm than reported by Bayat et al.(2012)shows that the forest has been better conserved by the CFUGs.Carbon stock of forest would be expected to continuously grow in future with the increasing volume of trees.This might occur only after sustainable harvest of old trees and plantation of seedlings as suggested by Nabuurs et al.(2007)and Gelman et al.(2013).The current extraction of forest products was less than in earlier years and people were more effectively involved in conservation and management of forest.

Greater amounts of above-ground biomass than belowground biomass is a typical characteristic of forests(Ekoungoulou et al.2015).The carbon stock in CFUG forests was less than that estimated by Purdon(2010)(268 t ha-1),Aryal et al.(2013)(166.68 t ha-1)and Bottazzi et al.(2013)(171 t ha-1).The soil organic carbon was also less than that estimated by Aryal et al.(2013)in mixed forest(60.86 ton ha-1).The carbon sequestration rate was higher in GSBCF than at KCF due to less extraction of forest products and growth of planted trees in GSBCF.Also timber from KCF was sold in local markets in 2013.Compared to the carbon sequestration rate estimated by Banskota et al.(2007)of Lalitpur(1.41 t ha-1a-1),Ilam(3.1 t ha-1a-1)and Manang(1.13 t ha-1a-1),GSBCF had high and KCF had medium carbon sequestration rates.

Conclusion

We conclude that demographic status,area of land holding,and livestock numbers were directly related to forest conservation and management.Forest resources such as timber,fi rewood,fodder and leaf litter were harvested from the forest.People were involved in forest thinning,meetings,guarding and plantation of forests on barren land for forest conservationandmanagement.Densityoftrees,biomassand carbon stock of trees had increased from 2010 to 2015.This shows that forest resource conservation,management and extraction by community forest user group had positive impact ongrowthofvegetation,carbon stockand thecarbon sequestration rate of the forest.Study of additional community forestry projects in Nepal is needed to design and implement improvements to existing methodologies.

Acknowledgements We acknowledge Prof.Dr.Kedar Rijal,Prof.Dharma Dangol,Dr.Dinesh Raj Bhuju,and Prof.Dr.Chet Raj Bhatta for guiding us and helping to conduct this study.

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