Introduction

The olfactory system has a unique ability to regenerate throughout life. Stem cells that reside in the olfactory epithelium lining the nasal cavity, generate new neurons throughout life. The capacity for ongoing neurogenesis in the adult mammalian exists not only in the main olfactory epithelium (OE) lining rostral part of nasal cavity but in the neuroepithelium lining vomeronasal organ (VNO) localised at the basal part of nasal septum. Olfactory receptor neurons(ORNs) in OE which are responsible for detection of odour project their axons to the olfactory bulb (OB, in the brain)to make functional connection with the second order neurons, mitral cells. VNO neurons which are responsible for detection of pheromones extend their axons to the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) which localise posteriorly to the OB(Figure 1A). Both olfactory axon fascicles (olfactory nerve)and VNO neurons axons are wrapped by unique glial cells,olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) (Figure 1C, D) which are thought to contribute to regeneration of olfactory sensory axons throughout life (Chehrehasa et al., 2010; Pellitteri et al., 2010). After injury, both ORNs and VNO neurons degenerate, however they are rapidly replenished by new neurons arising from stem cells which localise in the basal layer of OE and VNO epithelium (Figure 1B).

Unfortunately, regenerative capacity of the olfactory system decreases with age, neurodegenerative diseases, infl ammation, chronic sinus infection and anterior skull base surgery (Keller and Malaspina, 2013). Where regeneration of ORN fails, either through normal aging or other pathophysiological processes, this leads to clinical olfactory dysfunction or anosmia.

Olfactory dysfunction increases the mortality of adult individuals up to four times (Pinto et al., 2014). It affects quality of life of the affected individual, through difficulties in detecting hazardous events such as natural gas leaks, fi res,hazardous chemical vapors and decayed food (Miwa, 2001;Santos et al., 2004; Bon fi ls et al., 2008; Nordin et al., 2011).

Therefore, finding potential treatments or strategies to improve sense of smell is critical. Recent research efforts in the fi eld have shown some promising approaches to treating anosmia. The aim of this review is to outline factors regulating olfactory nerve dysfunction and possible treatments to improve olfactory function.

Physiological Modulation of Olfactory Dysfunction

Olfactory dysfunction and the amount of regeneration of olfactory receptor neurons after injury depends upon the degree and type of injury. Olfactory nerve transection is a common type of injury in which the olfactory nerve is severed as it traverses the cribriform plate. An alternative type of injury is unilateral removal of the OB which eliminates target tissue and leads to degeneration of ORNs (Chehrehasa et al., 2008) (Figure 1B). Kobayashi and Costanzo (2009)showed using different types of metal blades for olfactory nerve transection could affect the extent of scar formation and subsequently the level of olfactory nerve regeneration.Peripheral damage to olfactory epithelium is another type of injury which can be induced by exposure to methyl bromide (MeBr) (Holbrook et al., 2014), Triton X-100 (Jo et al., 2015) or methimazole (Chehrehasa et al., 2010). In these cases, the overall olfactory nerve is left mainly unaffected however there is some glial reaction to the large scale of axonal degeneration (Williams et al., 2004).

Figure 1 Degeneration of olfactory neurons in response to injury.

(A) Schematic sagittal view of the mouse nasal cavity showing the location of main olfactory epithelium (OE). (B) Coronal sections of the nasal cavity of ZsGreen mice after unilateral bulbectomy showing OE and VNO contain numerous neurons (green) in the unoperated side compared to the bulbectomized side. (C, D) Anti-BLBP immunostaining of main olfactory mucosa revealed that OECs (magenta) wrapped the olfactory axons (green) projected in lamina propria where they formed fascicles (arrowheads). Scale bar is 540 μm in B; 50 μm in C, D.OB: Olfactory bulb; VNO: vomeronasal organ; AOB: accessory olfactory bulb; Ctx: cortex; LP: lamina propria.

Another study also examined the effectiveness of BMMSC transplantation on olfactory mucosa. Olfactory degeneration was induced by unilateral Triton X-100 irrigation on Sprague-Dawley rats. Morphological restoration of the olfactory mucosa was observed at 4 weeks after transplantation which were higher in the treated side compared to the control (Kwon et al., 2016).

Cell Transplantation Therapy with Olfactory Dysfunction

BM-MSC transplantation has proven to be effective in restoring olfactory epithelium after injury. Jo et al. (2015)induced degeneration of the OE in male rats by using Triton X-100, followed by the introduction of BM-MSC intranasally. Four weeks after transplantation, OE thickness and cellular composition returned to normal. Restoration rate of the olfactory function after BM-MSC transplantation was signi fi cantly higher in treated animal than the control group(Jo et al., 2015).

Cell transplantation therapy has been studied as a therapeutic target for the functional restoration of the olfactory epithelium. Mesenchymal stromal stem cells are known to secrete and induce neurotrophic factors and angiogenic cytokines (Joyce et al., 2010). There is a correlation between restoring olfactory function and the expression of neurotropic factors like nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) (Jo et al., 2015). Therefore,mesenchymal stromal stem cells, theoretically, would be an effective therapeutic target for treating anosmia. Bone-marrow derived stem cells ((BM-MSC), adipose tissue derived stem cells (A-MSC) and human cord blood-selected CD133+stem cells (HSC) are all mesenchymal stromal stem cells that have been tested and transplanted into the injured olfactory epithelium.

第三，中国气温变化。我国的温度变化跟全球基本上趋势一致，但略高于全球平均水平。我国过去百年约上升0.8℃，最近50年的升率约为0.22℃/10a，高于世界平均值。四季均呈升温趋势，其中，冬季节升温显著，春夏季节存在局地降温情势。

This study also found expression levels of both nerve growth factor NGF and BDNF increased signi fi cantly in the transplanted group compared to the control, suggesting the transplanted cells restored neurotrophic factors to help regeneration of the olfactory neurons (Jo et al., 2015).

Olfactory dysfunction is modulated by cytokines. Leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and nitric oxide (NO) are known to play essential roles in regeneration of the olfactory epithelium after injury. A study by Lopez-Arenas et al. (2012)showed LIF promotes proliferation of neuronal progenitor cells via increasing level of inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the olfactory epithelial cell culture. NO is a diffusible intercellular messenger which is produced upon activation of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and it plays an important role in neurogenesis of the olfactory epithelium (Lopez-Arenas et al., 2012).

In another study, BM-MSC were transplanted into lateral ventricle of the brain after radiation therapy to rescue the animals. This study showed that although the transplanted cells migrated and reached the OB, they were not able to incorporate into OB interneurons. The structural and functional damage to the OB persisted up to one year post injury(Díaza et al., 2011) indicating long term effects of cell transplantation requires more investigation.

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are another potential for cell transplantation therapy. They are a unique glial cell type that ensheath olfactory axons into large bundles as they traverse from the lamina propria to the nerve fi bre layer of the olfactory bulb. They express guidance cues and extracellular matrix molecules to assist in growth and provide directional and tropic support to the primary neurons to successfully reach the olfactory bulb (Cao et al., 2010). Chehrehasa et al. (2010) showed that the presence of a permissive environment by initial migration of OECs ahead of regenerating axons enhanced axonal regrowth and regeneration. Olfactory degeneration was induced by unilateral bulbectomy followed by methimazole administration which caused a delay in olfactory axonal regrowth and allowed OECs to migrate ahead of the regenerating axons into the operated cavity(Chehrehasa et al., 2010). This study showed the presence of indigenous OECs ahead provided a permissive environment which improved regeneration of olfactory nerve.

Author contributions: FC devised the study context. FC, KB and JAST conducted the literature review, selected the papers, performed the analysis, interpreted the data and wrote the manuscript. All authors revised the manuscript for intellectual content.

周教授说，不能这么说么。我虽然做的是人文科学研究，但也对自然科学不陌生，也常有涉猎么。科学就是科学，不能说不信就是伪科学么。

辅导员是高校思想政治教育的骨干，加强辅导员队伍建设与培养，推动其职业化发展对大学生社会主义核心价值观的培养至关重要。针对传统思想政治教育中，辅导员尴尬的职业地位，高校应积极转变教育管理观念，从辅导员与大学生的关系出发，为其提供更广阔的空间，提升职业认同；加强其政治理论建设，提高其渗透、解读、践行社会主义核心价值观的能力。

Another study by Kim et al. (2009) also con fi rmed transplantation of A-MSC on olfactory epithelium following olfactory transection in rats promoted regeneration of olfactory epithelium.

HSC were transplanted into injured olfactory epithelium of nod-scid mice. This study showed the transplanted animals exhibited improved neuronal recovery with an increase expression of growth associated protein 43 (GAP-43) which is a marker of regenerating neurons (Franceschini et al.,2009). Overall BMSC’s have shown the most promise out of the MSC transplantation currently being investigated.

Neural stem cells (NSC) have also been investigated as a potential treatment for anosmia. Lee et al. (2010) studied transplantation of NSC into injured olfactory epithelium.In this study, extracted NSC of the olfactory bulb from GFP transgenic mice, were transplanted into injured olfactory epithelium. Behavioural tests and histological studies showed the transplanted group had a better recovery of olfactory function in terms of the food- fi nding test and the expression of OMP compared to the control (Lee et al., 2010).

Fraceschini et al. (2014) transplanted A-MSC to immu-node fi cient mice with permanent damaged in dorsomedial olfactory region (induced by dichlobenil inoculation). This study showed the transplanted cells integrated in the lesioned olfactory epithelium and clusters of differentiated cells were observed in the epithelium. There was a marked increase in the thickness of the epithelium and OMP immunoreactivity in the transplanted group compared to the control group (Franceschini et al., 2014).

Transplantation of purified DsRed-fluorescent OECs(exogenous) into the operated cavity of wild type mice also improved olfactory axon regeneration (Chehrehasa et al.,2010). The regenerated olfactory axons projected signi fi cantly deeper into the operated cavity in the transplanted animal compared to control group (Chehrehasa et al., 2010).

Another characteristic of OECs is proliferation and migration along the olfactory pathway in response to a widespread injury, unilateral bulbectomy. The proliferation of OECs occurred not only in the operated cavity but in the lamina propria of olfactory mucosa (Chehrehasa et al., 2012). This study con fi rmed proliferated OECs migrated from the lamina propria into the injury site (operated cavity) (Chehrehasa et al., 2012). Similar results were found in the accessory OECs as they proliferated in response to bulbectomy similar to the main olfactory OECs (Chehrehasa et al., 2014).

It is believed that the phagocytic capacity of OECs is a key factor in improving olfactory axonal regeneration, as they can potentially accelerate the removal of debris from the injury site and thereby improve conditions for neuronal regeneration (Lankford et al., 2008). An increase in phagocytic activities of main and accessory olfactory OECs con fi rmed after olfactory epithelium injury (unilateral bulbectomy or methimazole administration) and it has been con fi rmed they were responsible for major phagocytosis of the cell debris after widespread degeneration of primary olfactory and VNO neurons (Nazareth et al., 2015a, b). A recent study showed OECs secrete transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 which can increase their phagocytic activity through regulating integrin/MFG-E8 signalling pathway (Li et al., 2017).

为了解决会计信息披露监督管理不足的问题，就要强化监督管理。对此，在实践中监管机构要充分的借鉴国内外先进的管理经验，制定完善的、科学的规定要求，合理规避各种监督漏洞，进而降低各种违规事件的出现概率，保障市场的稳定运行。

Drug Treatment of Olfactory Dysfunction

Statins or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are traditionally used for lowering cholesterol. They have putative neuroprotective properties on the nervous system (Douma et al.,2011). The regenerative action of statins is demonstrated in Kim et al.’s study where the injured rat olfactory mucosa was treated with statin. This study showed the statin treatment group had an increase in expression level of olfactory marker protein and thickness of olfactory epithelium compared to control. The behavioural test also confirmed the treatment group had a higher pass rate in a food- fi nding test compared to control group (Kim et al., 2012).

1023 Related factors and clinical feature analysis of unexplained early neurological deterioration after intravenous thrombolysis

Valproic acid (VPA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, has shown some promising neuroregenerative properties in rodents with spinal cord injury (Lv et al., 2012). Ogawa et al.(2014) explored the effects of VPA on the regeneration of olfactory sensory neurons. Degeneration of the olfactory epithelium was induced by methimazole injection, after which the animals received daily VPA orally. The results showed the treatment increased epithelial thickness and number of olfactory marker protein (OMP) positive cells, Ki-67 (proliferative cells) and growth-associated protein-43 in the olfactory epithelium (Ogawa et al., 2014). These results suggest VPA stimulates proliferation and differentiation of olfactory precursor cells which in turn promotes regeneration of the olfactory system.

Glucocorticoid is an anti-in fl ammatory corticosteroid that shows promise in the regeneration of the olfactory system.Kobayashi and Costanzo (2009) studied effects of glucocorticoid (dexamethasone) after olfactory nerve transections in mice to determine whether anti-in fl ammatory steroid treatment can enhance recovery of the olfactory nerve after sever injury. This study showed the treatment improved regeneration of the olfactory nerve and reduced in fl ammatory response and scar tissue formation in the injury site (Kobayashi and Costanzo, 2009).

Another study investigated the efficacy of glucocorticoids for improvement of olfactory function in patients suffering postviral olfactory loss. Seo et al. (2009) treated some patients with prednisolone only and the rest were treated with prednisolone plus Ginkgo biloba (herb used for brain health). Olfactory function tests were performed before and after treatment which showed both groups had improvement in the olfactory function test, however the combined therapies of prednisolone plus Ginkgo biloba were more efficient in patients with post viral olfactory dysfunction (Seo et al., 2009). This was further con fi rmed with a more recent study fi nding after application of glucocorticoid, the expression of OMP in the olfactory mucosa was upregulated in allergic rhinitis animal models (Wang et al., 2017). Schriever et al. (2012) treated anosmic patients with systemic corticosteroids (methylprednisolone) for 14 days. The treatment resulted in an improvement in olfactory performance tests in almost half of the total patients (Schriever et al., 2012).Xu et al. (2016) investigated the effects of triamcinolone (a corticosteroid) in improvement of olfactory function in patient with rhinosinusitis that underwent endoscopic surgery.This study found a signi fi cant improvement in the olfactory functions among anosmic and hyposmic patients after operation compared to pre-operation in the treatment group compared to control (Xu et al., 2016).

Vitamins and minerals are essential for healthy nervous system. Vitamin A helps to form and maintain healthy body structures and has recently been shown to play a role in the regeneration of olfactory receptor neurons. Hummel et al.(2017) investigated the effectiveness of topical vitamin A in patients with post-infectious and post-traumatic smell disorders. This study showed thirty-seven percent of all post-infectious patients treated with vitamin A exhibited functional improvements compared to twenty-three percent improvement observed in the control group (Hummel et al., 2017).

Growth factors treatment is another potential treatment to improve olfactory regeneration. They stimulate cellular growth, proliferation and regeneration and are important for regulating cellular processes (Iwata et al., 2010), therefore, introducing them into the injury site can potentially restore homeostasis and encourage normal neurogenesis.

The effect of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was studied on olfactory epithelium of young and aging mice.bFGF was intranasally administered in animals and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), OMP, and GAP43 immunolabelling were used to detect any changes in the olfactory epithelium. These results showed a signi fi cant increase in the number of GAP-43 positive neuron, however there was no significant change in the number of OMP positive cells or mature olfactory receptor neurons (Nishikawa et al., 2009).

Nota et al. (2013) examined the effect of bFGF on the injured olfactory epithelium of mice. The anosmic mice received intranasal bFGF either in forms of hydrogel or drip infusion. Their results showed bFGF-hydrogel increased epithelium thickness and there was an increase in the number of mature ORNs expressing OMP (Nota et al., 2013).

Overall these studies showed daily injections of bFGF and TGF-α after injury can increase proliferation rate of olfactory progenitors cells in the olfactory epithelium which can improve olfactory neuron regeneration.

3.4 多元线性回归模型的结果表明，玉米芯残渣的各项底物特性对酶水解效率的影响由强到弱依次为：保水值、打浆度、平均粒径、比表面积和表面电荷密度。

Conclusion

The sense of smell is a necessity to the human existence.Olfactory dysfunction significantly influences executive functions including: physical wellbeing, quality of life and nutritional status. Currently, there is no proven effective treatment. Research in this field is hopefully bringing us closer to finding a potential therapeutic target. Cell transplantation therapy, anti-inflammatory drugs, organic substances, and growth factors treatment have been shown to alter the environment to improve olfactory regeneration.The potential treatment modulate olfactory dysfunction by stimulation of progenitor cells proliferation and differentiation to repopulate the olfactory epithelium, reducing scar tissue formation at injury site and modulation of immune response. All therapies need further investigation and perhaps combining therapies might be the future for an effective therapy.

近年来的研究表明，清晨除了血糖偏低外，人体血液粘滞，加上气温低，血管收缩等因素，若空腹运动可能导致人因低血糖和心脏疾患而猝死，故青少年早晨起床动作要舒缓，适当进餐、饮水后再运动。

Con fl icts of interest: The authors declare no con fl icts of interest.

Financial support: This work was supported by a grant from the Perry Cross Spinal Research Foundation to FC, JAST and by Queensland University of Technology to FC.

Copyright license agreement: The Copyright License Agreement has been signed by all authors before publication.

因此可以看出，本区铀矿化产于主要受控于与断裂构造，区域性三级断裂与其次级断裂或破碎带发育部位，即为矿床的有利构造部位。

“这——”办公室主任有些窘迫，起身去为迟恒沏茶，忙乱中从口袋里掏出包9元的烟，试探地抽出一支递给洪程，“迟记者，差烟，抽支吧。”迟恒赶紧起身接住，场面上很少有人拿这种烟出来应酬，普遍的是几十元的，不说抬身价，起码保身价。一般公务员，正常的经济能力也只能买几元一包的烟抽，迟恒抽的更便宜，五块一包的“黄果树”，采访时有时不注意掏出放茶几上，对方一见，赶紧弄来包“云烟”为他换上，弄得迟恒很难堪，好像是他暗示似的。其实好烟差烟又怎样，抽上了他妈都是个死。

Plagiarism check: Checked twice by iThenticate.

Peer review: Externally peer reviewed.

十年前后的“倍的认识”学习方式基本不变：都是在教师的启发下理解“几个多少”就是“多少的几倍”。在新一轮课程改革中，我们能否尊重学生的思维差异，创设“生生互动、生生互利”的学习环境，让学生获得更大的自由表达和展示机会，让不同的学生都有任务可做，发生真正意义上的“自主学习、探究学习”，在充分动手操作中积累基本活动经验，提升学生的学习能力。

Open access statement: This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak,and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

References

Bonfils P, Faulcon P, Tavernier L, Bonfils NA, Malinvaud D (2008)Home accidents associated with anosmia. Presse Med 37:742-745.

Cao L, Mu L, Qiu Y, Su Z, Zhu Y, Gao L, Yuan Y, Guo D, He C (2010)Diffusible, membrane-bound, and extracellular matrix factors from olfactory ensheathing cells have different effects on the self-renewing and differentiating properties of neural stem cells. Brain Res 1359:56-66.

Chehrehasa F, Key B, St John JA (2008) The cell surface carbohydrate blood group A regulates the selective fasciculation of regenerating accessory olfactory axons. Brain Res 1203:32-38.

Chehrehasa F, Ekberg JA, St John JA (2014) A novel method using intranasal delivery of EdU demonstrates that accessory olfactory ensheathing cells respond to injury by proliferation. Neurosci Lett 563:90-95.

Chehrehasa F, Ekberg JA, Lineburg K, Amaya D, Mackay-Sim A, St John JA (2012) Two phases of replacement replenish the olfactory ensheathing cell population after injury in postnatal mice. Glia 60:322-332.

Chehrehasa F, Windus LC, Ekberg JA, Scott SE, Amaya D, Mackay-Sim A, St John JA (2010) Olfactory glia enhance neonatal axon regeneration. Mol Cell Neurosci 45:277-288.

Díaza D, Recioa JS, Baltanása FC, Gómeza C, Weruagaa E, Alonsoa JR(2011) Long-lasting changes in the anatomy of the olfactory bulb after ionizing irradiation and bone marrow transplantation. Neuroscience 173:190-205.

Douma TN, Borre Y, Hendriksen H, Olivier B, Oosting RS (2011)Simvastatin improves learning and memory in control but not in olfactory bulbectomized rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 216:537-544.

Franceschini V, Bettini S, Pifferi S, Menini A, Siciliano G, Ognio E,Brini AT, Di Oto E, Revoltella RP (2014) Transplanted human adipose tissue-derived stem cells engraft and induce regeneration in mice olfactory neuroepithelium in response to dichlobenil subministration. Chem Senses 39:617-629.

Franceschini V, BettiniS, Saccardi R, Revoltella RP (2009) Stem cell transplantation supports the repair of injured olfactory neuroepithelium after permanent lesion. In: Trends in Stem Cell Biology and Technology (Baharvand H, ed), pp283-297. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.

Holbrook EH, Iwema CL, Peluso CE, Schwob JE (2014) The regeneration of P2 olfactory sensory neurons is selectively impaired following methyl bromide lesion. Chem Senses 39:601-616.

Hummel T, Whitcroft KL, Rueter G, Haehner A (2017) Intranasal vitamin A is beneficial in post-infectious olfactory loss. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 274:2819-2825.

Iwata J, Hosokawa R, Sanchez-Lara PA, Urata M, Slavkin H, Chai Y(2010) Transforming growth factor-beta regulates basal transcriptional regulatory machinery to control cell proliferation and differentiation in cranial neural crest-derived osteoprogenitor cells. J Biol Chem 285:4975-4982.

Jo H, Jung M, Seo DJ, Park DJ (2015) The effect of rat bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells transplantation for restoration of olfactory disorder. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 467:395-399.

Joyce N, Annett G, Wirthlin L, Olson S, Bauer G, Nolta JA (2010)Mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Regen Med 5:933-946.

Keller A, Malaspina D (2013) Hidden consequences of olfactory dysfunction: a patient report series. BMC Ear Nose Throat Disord 133:8.

Kim HY, Kim JH, Dhong HJ, Kim KR, Chung SK, Chung SC, Kang JM, Jung YG, Jang SY, Hong SD (2012) Effects of statins on the recovery of olfactory function in a 3-methylindole-induced anosmia mouse model. Am J Rhinol Allergy 26:e81-84.

Kim YM, Choi YS, Choi JW, Park YH, Koo BS, Roh HJ, Rha KS (2009)Effects of systemic transplantation of adipose tissue-derived stem cells on olfactory epithelium regeneration. Laryngoscope 119:993-999.

Kobayashi M, Costanzo RM (2009) Olfactory nerve recovery following mild and severe injury and the efficacy of dexamethasone treatment. Chem Senses 34:573-580.

Kwon J, Jo HG, Park SM, Ku CH, Park D (2016) Engraftment and regenerative effects of bone marrow stromal cell transplantation on damaged rat olfactory mucosa. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 273:2585-2590.

Lankford KL, Sasaki M, Radtke C, Kocsis JD (2008) Olfactory ensheathing cells exhibit unique migratory, phagocytic, and myelinating properties in the X-irradiated spinal cord not shared by Schwann cells. Glia 56:1664-1678.

Lee CH, Jeon SW, Seo BS, Mo JH, Jeon EH, Choi AR, Kim JW (2010)Transplantation of neural stem cells in anosmic mice. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol 3:84-90.

Li Y, Zou T, Xue L, Yin ZQ, Huo S, Xu H (2017) TGF-beta1 enhances phagocytic removal of neuron debris and neuronal survival by olfactory ensheathing cells via integrin/MFG-E8 signaling pathway.Mol Cell Neurosci 85:45-56.

Lopez-Arenas E, Mackay-Sim A, Bacigalupo J, Sulz L (2012) Leukaemia inhibitory factor stimulates proliferation of olfactory neuronal progenitors via inducible nitric oxide synthase. PLoS One 7:e45018.

Lv L, Han X, Sun Y, Wang X, Donga Q (2012) Valproic acid improves locomotion in vivo after SCI and axonal growth of neurons in vitro.Exp Neurol 233:783-790.

Miwa T, Furukawa M, Tsukatani T, Costanzo RM, DiNardo LJ, Reiter ER (2001) Impact of olfactory impairment on quality of life and disability. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 127:497-503.

Nazareth L, Tello Velasquez J, Lineburg KE, Chehrehasa F, St John JA,Ekberg JA (2015a) Differing phagocytic capacities of accessory and main olfactory ensheathing cells and the implication for olfactory glia transplantation therapies. Mol Cell Neurosci 65:92-101.

Nazareth L, Lineburg KE, Chuah MI, Tello Velasquez J, Chehrehasa F, St John JA, Ekberg JA (2015b) Olfactory ensheathing cells are the main phagocytic cells that remove axon debris during early development of the olfactory system. J Comp Neurol 523:479-494.

Nishikawa T DK, Ochi N, Katsunuma S, Nibu K. (2009) Effect of intranasal administration of basic fi broblast growth factor on olfactory epithelium. Neuroreport 20:764-769.

Nordin S, Blomqvist EH, Olsson P, Stjarne P, Ehnhage A; NAF2S2 Study Group (2011) Effects of smell loss on daily life and adopted coping strategies in patients with nasal polyposis with asthma. Acta Otolaryngol 131:826-832.

Nota J, Takahashi H, Hakuba N, Hato N, Gyo K (2013) Treatment of neural anosmia by topical application of basic fi broblast growth factor-gelatin hydrogel in the nasal cavity: an experimental study in mice. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 139:396-400.

Ogawa T, Takezawa K, Shimizu S, Shimizu T (2014) Valproic acid promotes neural regeneration of olfactory epithelium in adult mice after methimazole-induced damage. Am J Rhinol Allergy 28:e95-99.

Pellitteri R, Spatuzza M, Stanzani S, Zaccheo D (2010) Biomarkers expression in rat olfactory ensheathing cells. Front Biosci (Schol Ed)2:289-298.

Pinto JM, Wroblewski KE, Kern DW, Schumm LP, McClintock MK(2014) Olfactory dysfunction predicts 5-year mortality in older adults. PLoS One 9:e107541.

Santos DV, Reiter ER, DiNardo LJ, Costanzo RM (2004) Hazardous events associated with impaired olfactory function. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 130:317-319.

Schriever VA, Merkonidis C, Gupta N, Hummel C, Hummel T (2012)Treatment of smell loss with systemic methylprednisolone. Rhinology 50:284-289.

Seo BS, Lee HJ, Mo JH, Lee CH, Rhee CS, Kim JW (2009) Treatment of postviral olfactory loss with glucocorticoids, Ginkgo biloba,and mometasone nasal spray. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 135:1000-1004.

Wang X, Zhu Y, Ni D, Lv W, Gao Z, Qi F (2017) Intranasal application of glucocorticoid alleviates olfactory dysfunction in mice with allergic rhinitis. Exp Ther Med 14:3971-3978.

Williams SK, Franklin RJ, Barnett SC (2004) Response of olfactory ensheathing cells to the degeneration and regeneration of the peripheral olfactory system and the involvement of the neuregulins. J Comp Neurol 470:50-62.

Xu J, Park SJ, Park HS, Han R, Rha KS, Kim YM (2016) Effects of triamcinolone-impregnated nasal dressing on subjective and objective outcomes following endoscopic sinus surgery. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 273:4351-4357.