1 概 述

在中国，城市设计作为辅助政府重大政策实施的一种途径，旨在保护自然环境的同时，让城市更高效、更宜居、与自然相处更加和谐。该项议题围绕3个问题展开：建于何处、建于何时以及建设什么。第一个问题最为重要，即在何处许可新的城市化。第二个则是何时展开新的城市化，而并非填空式开发和城市化用地的集约再利用。第三个问题，建设大家最为熟知的城市设计问题，重点在于促成城市化形态范式的规范制度，而这些形态范式越来越呈现出过度僵化的问题，缺乏对重要的生态、历史以及生活方式等要素的考虑。

在讨论中国当前城市设计和规划问题之前，回顾1978年经济体制改革后中国城市化所实现的惊人成就是有必要的。中国建立起了新的国道系统、新的国家航空系统以及近乎覆盖了每个主要城市的高铁新铁路网络。国家年均GDP增长率为9%[1]，平均每年建设一亿多套住房。政府领导超过5亿人摆脱了贫困，进入中上层甚至上层阶级，实现了历史上空前高涨的国家发展。目前全国13.5亿人口中近54%的人口居住在城市，而1978年这个比例仅为18%[2]。按照中国《国家新型城镇化规划（2014—2020年）》要求，到2020年中国的城镇化率将达到60%，城市人口将再增加 9,000 万 [3]。

杨年喜说道：“因为家里已经不再种地，土地都承包给了别人，所以从前那些长工短工早就辞退了，现在偌大一个家，只剩下我们老小四个人。”

为促进城市化的快速推进，政府制定了规划设计规范用以设计和建设城市，包括各种道路系统规划、标准的区域发展规划、土地利用规划、三种不同层级居住区的人口数量标准以及对居住房屋建设的明确严格要求，如每个居住单元采光量的日照间距规范。这些原本为节约燃料而制定的日照间距规范，从获取太阳能的角度来看仍然有意义，但是长期以来，这种规范被转译为住宅建筑之间大的、难以利用的空间，产生了“大绿地中的建筑塔楼”这样的地区。

在中国大量的城市和区域中，新开发区顺理成章地在开发模式上遵从一种固定化范式。这种几乎不考虑环境因素的标准化城市化已经蔓延到了农村地区和风景名胜区。40年前制定的强有力的规范，已经不符合中国错综复杂的社会环境。这套规范缺乏对紧凑发展、粮食安全、风景名胜保护和气候变化潜在影响的考虑，造成了中国日益严重的环境问题。

出于对这个问题的认识，中共中央和国务院分别于2015年4月和2016年2月公布了《关于加快推进生态文明建设的意见》和《关于进一步加强城市规划建设管理工作的若干意见》两个指导文件[4-5]。

生态文明是2011—2015年中国“十二五”规划的重要目标，并延续到“十三五”规划中。文明是指整个现代的经济和社会结构，将理想的文明形式描述为生态，是所有人类活动应与自然和谐相处的一种表述。这项事业非常具有理想色彩但困难重重，尽管丹麦、芬兰、冰岛、挪威和瑞典这些北欧国家正努力朝着这个方向发展，但迄今为止没有任何国家达到这个目标。

中国2015年发布了一份关于加快全面推进生态文明的文件，明确地陈述了一系列雄心勃勃的环境政策目标。该文件提出保护优先于发展以及提倡绿色发展的基本原则，即发展应遵循“减量化、再利用、再循环、低碳利用”的循环型城市建设原则。

保护优先是指自然资源和现有景观的保护应优先于城市化发展决策。将这个要求应用到城市设计中就意味着所有的城市化都应该以环境承载能力和尊重自然景观为前提。承载能力和自然景观应当构成城市发展的背景，而不是以城市发展模式来重组自然景观。该要求进一步提出，若现行法律法规与生态文明建设目标相冲突，应予以废除。生态文明规划应当由各级政府贯彻实施。

“城市规划与建设管理”的要求与“生态文明”的要求一脉相承[6]，提出了城市规划建设管理的总体目标：实现城市有序建设、适度开发、高效运行，努力打造和谐宜居、富有活力、各具特色的现代化城市，让人民生活更美好。“有序建设”确保了对规划条例的遵循，不被政治考虑所重塑；“适度开发”是对奇奇怪怪建筑的反对，“高效运行”是指在不扩张城市的基础上实现所有可利用土地的合理利用。建设和谐社会是“十二五”以来的一个重要目标，也是实现社会公平的陈述。“努力打造和谐宜居、富有活力的城市”是通用的规划目标，在这样的语境下，它可被视为现行城市规划设计规范实施之下没有达到的水准；“打造各具特色的城市”即反对现行规范一成不变的规划体系淹没了城市富有个性的历史特色。以提高生活质量为终极目标，就是要把规划发展的重点从简单地提供住宅、公园、交通等要素转变为对城市整体设计的重视。

专业的师资力量是学生定向运动专业能力的影响因素之一，学生能够轻松地掌握基础的定向运动的学习，但是更加专业的方向感的培养等专业技能的学习，需要学生自身学习与专研外，还需要专业的教练进行指导。据调查，南京普通高校定向运动专业师资力量还有待提高。

该要求将城市设计定义为城市规划的实施，能够提供个性化的设计指导，成为塑造城市特色风貌的有效手段。单一的建筑设计必须遵从城市设计在形态、色彩、体量、高度等重要特征方面的要求。在新型城市化管理中，发展必须充分利用自然系统，包括建设节约用水和收集雨水的绿色基础设施。此外，城市生态系统的恢复也是一个目标，政府已经启动了“海绵城市”试点项目，在16个城市投资了127亿美元建设绿色基础设施。该要求还涉及城市建设多个方面的一系列具体目标，包括建筑施工、污染控制和污水处理，它要求通过各个层级政府实施新的城市治理体系来落实这些政策。

中央政府赋予住房和城乡建设部落实这些重要国家政策目标的任务。任何倡导城市设计的人都应该为城市设计在改革中国城市发展方面被赋予的核心角色而高兴和兴奋，但依据以往经验，抵制变革的必然存在致使改革将是一个复杂而艰巨的任务。因此，我们将关注点放在了为实现这项任务而可能面临的复杂性和困难性上。

2 建于何处

在气候变化、全球化、人口快速增长以及中国持续快速城市化进程的时代，城市设计需要采取大量举措。中国现有的城市化方式使得人口密集地区几乎到处都在发展，造成了大面积的自然环境、农田和历史建筑的消失。 目前的规划设计规范也未能意识到气候变化和海平面上升对现有的和新的规划造成的严重风险影响。

国土资源部是负责编制国土资源利用规划的中央政府机构[7]。此类规划设置了土地利用的所有指标，如需要保留的耕地数量、省市和地方政府的城市化土地数量指标等。土地规划在理论上是一个平衡生态保护和城市化的有力工具，尽管在实践中它并不体现为一种有效决策机制，能确定农业和自然景观的哪个具体部分应该城市化。强调水资源、粮食安全、防御风暴灾害、防止空气和水污染、适应气候变化的国家土地利用规划，可以帮助实施生态文明政策要求，使其在城市化进程中优先考虑自然环境保护。在国家层面采用相对较粗略的决议，虽然在政治上有一定困难，但是可以减轻省市和地方政府在规划设计过程中的压力。以此为发展方向提出的2015年政府举措，计划通过划定城市空间增长边界，仿效美国俄勒冈州制定的城市增长边界，来遏制包括北京、上海和广州在内14个城市的“摊大饼”式发展[8]。

各省以及一些与省份地位相同的大城市是中国政府次一层的决策层级。一些城市设计问题是否可以通过省一级的土地利用规划来预先确定是需要考虑的问题。这些土地利用规划一般都是非常抽象的，但它们也确实显示了城市发展的方向和人口中心的总体位置。中国在新城建设选址方面存在一定的问题，例如被称为“鬼城”的一些城市，其规模、交通体系所决定的增长方向以及未来人口增长计算等，这些土地利用规划中的典型要素可能与下一层级的城市增长与自然系统保护政策相冲突。而且，环境保护对于区域层面的休闲和农业是至关重要的，例如中国环首都地区—京津冀超大城市区。因此，城市和环境设计需要优先解决区域层面的政策，以此为背景展开城市、地区和更小地块的城市设计决策。

3 建于何时

中国城市在快速将农村土地转换为城市土地的过程中扩张，在此过程中村民被重新安置，随之进行地区和地块规划，将土地出售给开发商。土地收购和销售成本之间的差额流向城市，这种做法增加了城市未来的运营支出，并且进一步推动了农村土地流转为城市土地的进程。这种做法能够提供即时收入，成为地方政府解决财政问题的一种途径。

如果将发展引向生态绿地，即使发展这些地区也能符合生态文明的目标，但可能导致忽视已经部分城市化地区的发展机会。目前的规划体系未能明确指出，通过提高新的换乘站、高铁站点和机场等具有发展潜力的地区周边的开发密度，以此来实现对有价值的农业和自然资源的优先保护是否可行。

防止城市过度扩张已被确定为新的城市设计导则的基本任务[9]。什么是过度？通过对现有城市化地区内每公顷人口和工作场所密度的衡量即可知。在整个城市的密度达到总体规划设定的水平之前，应该制约农村土地的新开发。然而，这样的衡量方法不适用于城市中保留了绿色开放空间和历史建筑的建成地区。中国新的城市化区域在规划中采用机动车出行作为主要的交通方式。由于中国许多城市正在建设轨道交通系统，增长压力可以通过建设更为紧凑的步行可达交通站点来缓解。将新发展转移到交通站点步行范围内的适当地点可以减少城市蔓延，并使这些交通系统的运作更加高效。

当确有必要拓展城市化地区的时候，城市化发生地区的选择应当遵从保护整体自然景观和优化城市空间结构的城市设计导则。这是一套复杂的决策系统，做出决策需要考虑生态规划和城市规划，当然这可能会是一个困难的政治问题。

4 在城市层面上建设什么

现有城市层面的发展和规划规范体现了一系列城市设计设想，这些设想源于20世纪二三十年代国际建筑师联合会（C.I.A.M.）所提出的各项原则[10]。C.I.A.M.的相关理念通过出版物、1949年后前苏联顾问的工作以及老一辈中国规划师所受到的教育传入中国。在当下中国城市典型的土地利用和总体发展规划中，规划设计的组织方式往往通过主干道和高速公路将城市划分为大型街区，这种大型街区能够满足汽车交通的高效运作，但对行人和骑自行车者并不友好。由于对换乘站点在交通运输中的作用认识不足，机动车交通是当时国际建筑师联合会提出的主要原则。

此外，每一块大型街区土地用途单一。这种大面积单一用途的分区也为C.I.A.M.所提倡，还包括将大块公共开放空间作为一个单独的土地用途进行隔离，而并非作为与其他活动相结合的公共开放空间系统的一部分。C.I.A.M.标榜技术解决方案是现代化的范式，保护自然景观和历史建筑被认为是浪漫和不科学的。规划完全由道路系统工程主导，在大型未细分的土地利用分区下已经无法识别原有的自然景观以及任何历史的或已有的发展，这是对C.I.A.M.原则的完全实践。

如今，C.I.A.M.版本的城市设计体现在一系列的技术规划要求中，如果要在城市层面产生不同的城市设计，就需要做出改变。

目前规划中的大型街区规定了每2平方公里范围内主要街道总长度的最小值和最大值，而现在大多数城市设计人员所倡导的小型街区网络需要更加密集的道路建设。由于规划必须符合法规才能获得正式批准，因此需要修改相关规范。

中国总体规划中的土地利用划分是通过预测人口增长和商业活动来确定的，该做法广为应用。然而由于土地混合使用没有受到普遍认可，因此规划的土地利用预测往往不够准确，即使有混合使用这一类别，也通常在特殊情况下使用。由此，住宅和商业区规划绘制了每个单独类别所需要的土地数量，相对于更为广泛应用的混合使用，这样的方式夸大了对土地的需求。土地用途划分体现在由面积限制而成的大型街区上。在规划中，预留生态用地以及去除已开发的不符合土地利用类别的土地并不是通常的做法。所有的土地都被包含在了规划图中并明确给定了土地用途。如前所述，公园绿地系统也被视为单独的土地用途。

为了确定城市总体形态的模式，需要城市景观框架、公共空间系统以及一系列针对具有特殊城市设计重要性区域的关键要求。将这些城市设计导则引入到规划过程并非需要规划人员将高速公路、道路和土地利用图交接给城市设计师来进行调整，而是将土地利用与城市设计相关联，将其作为城市设计规划的一部分，其中城市设计包含与交通、城市建筑形态和其他城市形态相关方面的公共开放空间和街道规划。土地利用“预算”不应被分配，而应通过迭合的过程，作为包括与交通相关的混合利用中心和居住邻里在内的整体规划和城市设计过程的一部分。如果没有这样的过程，就不能有效替代原有C.I.A.M.影响下的官方土地利用规划。

5 在地区层面上建设什么

The existing rulebook for planning and development at the city level already embodies a set of urban design assumptions derived from the principles put forward by the C.I.A.M., the Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne, during the 1920s and 1930s[10]. These ideas reached China through publications, through the work of Russian advisors after 1949, and through the education of an older generation of Chinese planners. In a typical master land-use and development plan in force for a Chinese city today, the design organization comes from the major-street and expressway system which divides the city into large blocks planned to be efficient for automobile transportation but not so friendly for pedestrians or cyclists, and with little recognition of the role of transit in concentrating development at stations. Primacy for the motor car was a major C.I.A.M. principle.

中国的地区规划是制订管控发展的控制性详细规划的基础，是城市设计过程中的关键步骤。地区规划体现了一个明确的城市设计方案和C.I.A.M.的理念，并将现代主义原则的影响深化到进一步的细节中：街道系统确定大型街区，自然景观服从于街道模式，大型开放空间与开发建设相隔离，而占主导地位的建筑类型则是一个个独立的、由绿色边缘包围着的南向住宅塔楼。

根据中国国家标准城市居住区规划设计规范，住宅楼内的每个住宅都应该能够在一年中日照最短的一天获得2～3个小时的日照[11]。在实践中，这种要求导致建筑物排成一排，全部朝南，并且分散排布以满足在12月21日这一天，太阳高度角到达每个建筑物的基部。依据前文所述，这些规则原本是资源匮乏时期减少冬季取暖成本的措施，但是由于对能源效率新的担忧以及满足太阳能电池板获取阳光的需求，这一规则在今天仍然有意义。另外，风水是中国传统信仰体系里决定居住地吉凶的关键，强烈主张人们居住在面南的主要房间，这一信仰在决定中国建造待售房屋的设计方面起着决定性的作用。即使买方不相信风水，仍然存在对转售价值的担忧，因为很多人在做出买入决定时都会考虑这种因素。

在常规的地区规划中已经体现了强大的城市设计概念，而困难之处在于这种规划不符合新的城市设计导则的期望。这种期望是指地区层级的导则应该沿用城市层面总体城市设计的要求，包括尊重地域生态特征、与历史和文化特征相关联、将公共空间系统整合在总体设计中，而并非进行简单的土地用途划分。

如果拟议的新城市设计导则与现有标准不同，冲突点可能体现在道路系统的设计、景观环境的识别与管理以及为整个地区建立公共开放空间系统上。最困难的城市设计环节可能在于根据太阳高度角设置的南向住宅间距问题的处理。

2 Where to Build

尽管日照间距规范已经形成，但实际上对日照获得的规范只是一个性能规范，而并非设计住宅建筑的规范。有些方法可以使用替代的城市设计配置来满足这一要求，例如利用附加的高层和低层建筑物形成庭院，特别是混合使用的较低建筑物对日照要求并不那么高。另外，类似其他国家，大部分中国城市街道系统的设计都是沿着南北和东西走向的。西班牙规划师塞尔达在19世纪后期所做的著名的巴塞罗那规划，将街道系统由正北向旋转45°从而改善了长时间暴露在阳光下的状况。巴塞罗那的经验表明，中国的总体规划和地区规划可能也可以通过修改街道布局来满足居住建筑的日照规范，街道的宽度和街区的大小将是这些设计的重要组成部分。现在的计算机程序可以模拟和评估建筑和街道在不同组合方式下对日照间距的满足情况，因此，这可能是一个重要的城市设计研究领域。

据中央纪委通报，2017年全国纪检监察机关共接受信访举报273.3万件次，处置问题线索125.1万件，立案52.7万件，处分52.7万人(其中党纪处分44.3万人)，全年立案数及处分人数超过2016年，连续五年增长。查处的结果一方面反映了我国自十八大以来的反腐成绩，但也从另一层面显现了腐败增量与存量存在的严重问题，从“反腐败斗争压倒性态势”到“反腐败斗争压倒性胜利”仍任重道远。

联赛开始后，新教练、新外援和一群内心充满了不确定感的本土球员，伤筋动骨后在忐忑不安中开始了征程，主教练吴庆龙以“趟雷子”来形容自己的执教之旅，其实因为夏秋窗口期的动荡，山东西王男篮的备战效果极差，体能储备和技战术能力，不升反降。吴庆龙曾经口口声声表示要重用年轻人，但是联赛开始后人们发现，他跟自己的前任一样，为了成绩，一套阵容用到底，张庆鹏张老汉成为铁打的主力，莫泰成为劳模，积劳成疾，莫泰和古德洛克两名外援先后伤退。这也就导致让很多球迷不解的现实：缺少了丁彦雨航等人，山东男篮现在几乎是人见人欺，防守不是防守，进攻不是进攻。

地区层级城市设计的另一个重要问题是城市街区的大小。步行城市需要相对较小的街区，否则两点之间的路程可能会涉及很长的绕道。较小的街区对创建方便的交通非常重要。当前中国城市设计体系中所创造的大型居住区内通过设立门禁来保障居民安全，这使得每一个街区成为了封闭的社区，行人或骑自行车的人不能使用这些捷径。有人建议把这些街区开放给公众使用，但是这些建议肯定会受到居民的强烈抵制，因为他们认为这会降低他们的财产价值。如果一定要开放社区，那么就需要一个城市设计方案来明确每一个通道都可以通过公共的方式进入，但是仍然为居民的安全和财产提供保障。

现有中国城市街区的安全体系实际上比那些地块较小而每栋建筑封闭管理的城市更有效，就像纽约那样，住宅楼要么锁着，要么有自己的门卫等安全人员。就新开发地区的规划而言，介于纽约小型街区和中国大型街区之间有各种不同的街区尺度。例如巴塞罗那不仅街区足够大，可以为街区的居民提供私人空间，而且街区外围提供了舒适的步行街道。

街区尺度和建筑形态是城市设计的关键问题，需要在地区层级解决，并将其纳入到控制性详细规划中，从而约束更小地块的规划。

6 在地块层面上建设什么

地块层级的城市设计导则应该要求开发商提交一份地块详细设计的审批报告，地块详细设计需与控制性详细规划、地区规划和其他要求相一致。每个地块上的详细设计，应与相邻地块的属性相协调。设计每个开发区的导则应包括开放空间的设计、建筑物退线、标志性建筑位置（可以包括历史建筑）、高效交通系统、景观要素、基础设施（如学校）、停车场和地下空间。设计提交内容还应包括相关的实施策略。由于地块规划要符合地区层级的控制性详细规划，因此在制定地区控制性详细规划时，必须制定关键的城市设计策略。

7 在特殊情形下如何建设

对城市有特定价值、历史价值和文化价值的地区应该有针对性的特殊导则。这意味着应该为重要新开发区、历史文化街道街区、历史区域的适应性再利用、新中央商务区、交通枢纽和滨水地区设置特殊的城市设计管理要求。城市设计要求应该规范：天际线，表达城市的文化和自然特征；建筑特色，确保建筑物与现有建筑环境和公共空间的适应，从而形成一个连贯的空间网络和宜人尺度的公共领域。这些特殊情形下的城市设计方案需要在地区层面进行制定和规范，以便协调各个地块的开发设计。

中国政府机构多年来一直在尝试探索特殊情形下可替代的城市设计理念。上海地区的“一城九镇”项目引入了外国设计师和规划师，为9个新城镇中心的城市设计和建筑表现形式提出不同的想法[12]。每个新城都被赋予了一个特定的国家特色，如荷兰主题的高桥新城、德国主题的安亭新城等。模仿外国城市被选为替代现有设计规则的方法并在房地产市场加以验证。

北京金融街是一个完整区域设计的特殊情形案例，大部分建筑物是为了容纳重要的中国金融机构而设计。政府打算建立一个金融区，但又不仅仅是一组提供必要办公空间的建筑物。包括SOM在内的规划设计团队，制订的方案是通过建筑物布局和高度限制导则在中央公园周围组织起了一组连贯的建筑物。

8 实施城市设计导则

上海9个新镇和北京金融街的实践表明，可替代现有的中国城市设计导则有其特殊性才能奏效。9个新镇的设计是对其他地方既有城市设计模式的模拟，而金融街的设计则有一套明确的建筑布局法规和高度限制。 仅仅要求规划师和设计师注意一系列重大问题是不够的，还有必要定义理想的城市设计结果。

以下是一些已经被开发和采用的可以纳入城市设计导则的管理工具。

在市域总体城市规划层面，按照导则，土地利用规划的过程可以从一个完整的环境清单开始，为排除不应该开发的土地提供基础。承载能力有限的土地也只能用于低强度开发。在沿海地区和河流沿岸，需要特别保护可以确定受海平面上升和其他洪水影响的地区。

此外，在市域总体城市规划层面上，大型居住区、办公区和工业区土地类别下的子类别地区可以定义为适合于新的混合使用用途，进而可以被广泛地反映在图面上以允许更灵活的发展决策。

综上所述，科学使用BIM技术可使建筑工程设计管理工作开展更加高效，降低这项管理工作进行中的问题发生率，满足现代建筑工程设计管理方面增加技术含量的要求。因此，未来在提升建筑工程设计管理水平的过程中，需要重视BIM在其设计管理中的高效利用，使建筑工程设计管理效果更加显著，避免对工程质量和效益造成不利影响。在此基础上，扩大BIM在建筑领域中的应用范围，丰富建筑工程设计管理的技术内容。

除了取消目前对市域总体规划所允许的主要街道数量的限制之外，还可以针对次级街道的设置增加对小街区尺度要求的规定，如最小街区周长就是这样一个要求。也可以通过规定每平方公里最少的街道交叉口数量来鼓励街道的相互连接。

在地区层级的规划中，目前通过编制终极蓝图规划来说明土地利用计划的做法可以用城市设计概念规划来替代，该规划可以绘制保护区、街道和街区规划以及公共开放空间规划。重要建筑物的位置被标注，建筑物布局的导则被体现，如退线要求、贴线率以及高度限制等要求。这个城市设计规划可以作为制订土地利用规则的基础。这种方法既允许了更大的设计灵活性，也有助于在规划中对关键设计要素的理解和应用。

在地块层面，实施地区层面的规划需要审批程序。如果土地是直接从政府机构获得的，导则可以成为出售协议的一部分，包括要求对建筑和景观规划进行审查。如果土地已经是私人控制的，那么就需要有一种包括监察程序的许可证制度。

城市设计导则还可以为道路和交通通达性良好的地区设定最小的住宅和商业密度。中国的土地面积与美国（不包括阿拉斯加）差不多，但中国的人口是美国的5倍左右，可用土地面积却只有美国的一半。随着中国有越来越多的富裕人口，模仿美国郊区发展的中国别墅区越来越受欢迎，但是低密度的土地开发模式是对土地资源的浪费，对中国而言不是一个好的长远政策。基于此，需要其他的设计理念来满足富裕阶层的生活需求。

如果新的城市设计导则能够成为国家、区域、市域以及地方层级城市设计的基础，中国将创造出一种无与伦比的城市设计体系，该体系能够引导中央政府重大发展目标的有效落实。

ORIGINAL TEXTS IN ENGLISH

Urban Design in China: Where to Build,When to Build, What to Build

作为初一新生的数学教师，常会听到学生说“这题怎么这么难啊”，而且原本在小学反应不错的学生，课上也默不作声了，学习数学的热情也减了几分，更别提对数学有兴趣了。因而如何引导他们尽快过渡、是我们每一位初中数学教师的重要责任。所以我根据学生的心理特点，试着从教法与学法入手，做了一些探索。

Jonathan Barnett, Stefan Al

Jonathan Barnett is an emeritus Professor of Practice in City and Regional Planning, and former director of the Urban Design Program, at the University of Pennsylvania. He is an architect and planner as well as an educator,and is the author of numerous books and articles on the theory and practice of city design.

His recent work on large-scale urban development and redevelopment projects includes a 2500 hectare planned community in Cambodia, an urban design plan for the whole city of Omaha, Nebraska and a transit-oriented design plan for the City of Xiamen in China.

(2)分析：可以发现，教材就是整理好的知识体系，是由概念和逻辑推理来构建的数学概念、术语、结论、定理、公式、法则等等，以及一些推理的逻辑步骤和技巧等.教材的语言表述严谨、简洁，几乎是“一字不多、一字少”，标点符号也很讲究，成为数学语言表达的“标准”.

Books written by Jonathan Barnett include Urban Design as Public Policy (1974), Introduction to Urban Design(1982), The Elusive City: Five Centuries of Design,Ambition, and Miscalculation (1987), The Fractured Metropolis: Improving the New City, Restoring the Old City, Reshaping the Region (1996), Ecodesign for Cities and Suburbs (2015) and City Design: Modernist, Traditional, Green, and Systems Perspectives (2016).

See: http://www.design.upenn.edu/city-regional-planning/graduate/people/jonathan-barnett.

Giving priority to conservation means that decisions where urbanization takes place should be subordinated to conservation of natural resources and the existing landscape. Translating this directive into urban design means that all urbanization should be based on environmental carrying capacity and respect for natural landscape forms. Carrying capacity and the natural landscape should form the setting for urban development, as opposed to having urban development patterns reorganize the natural landscape. The directive goes on to say that existing laws and regulations should be abrogated if they conflict with ecological civilization objectives,and that plans to implement ecological civilization should be made at all levels of government.

Urban Design is emerging in China as a way to help implement major new government policy directives for preserving the natural environment and for making cities more efficient, more livable,and more in harmony with nature. The big issues center around three questions: where to build, when to build, and what to build? The first, and possibly the most important, is where additional urbanization should be permitted. The second is when new urbanization should take place, as opposed to in fill development and more intensive use of already urbanized land. What to build is the most familiar urban design issue, and concerns changes to an existing government rule-book which has produced a form of urbanization which is increasingly seen as overly rigid and indifferent to important ecological,historical, and life-style considerations.

Before discussing current urban design and planning problems in China, it is important to remember that the urbanization of China, since the reform of the economic system began in 1978, has been an astonishingly successful achievement. A complete new national road system, a new national air system, a new rail network including high speed trains, rail rapid transit in almost every major city,the annual average growth of GDP of 9%[1], the construction of more than a hundred million units of housing, and the elevation of more than half a billion people out of poverty and into the middleor even the upper-class has been unparalleled in the history of national development. Nearly 54 percent of the country’s 1.35 billion people now live in cities, up from less than 18 percent in 1978[2]. Moreover, China’s 2014-2020 Urbanization Plan called for the country to be 60 percent urbanized by 2020,adding another 90 million people to cities[3].

In order to facilitate rapid urbanization, the government created a rule book for designing and building cities, including specifications for all kinds of street systems, a standard regional development plan, a required process for making land-use plans, population standards for residential areas as a hierarchy of three different kinds of housing organization, and clear and strict requirements for the housing itself -including detailed rules for how much sunlight has to reach every dwelling unit. These rules, enacted originally to save fuel, continue to make sense as access to solar energy becomes more important, but they have been interpreted to require large, hardto-use spaces between buildings, creating disticts composed of “towers in the park”.

Not surprisingly, much of the new development in China has ended up following a pattern which is similar from city to city, and from region to region.This standardized urbanization has spread over agricultural land and scenic landscapes with little regard for environmental considerations. Following this powerful set of rules, written almost forty years ago, is no longer in keeping with the complex and sophisticated society that China has become, and the lack of consideration of compact development,food security, landscape heritage, and the potential effects of climate change contributes to China’s increasingly serious environmental problems.

The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council have recognized these problems with two recently published guidance documents: Opinions on Further Promoting the Development of Ecological Civilizationin in April of 2015 and Opinions on Further Strengthening Urban Planning and Construction Management in February of 2016[4-5].

Ecological Civilization was an important objective in China’s12th five-year plan adopted for the years 2011-2015 and carries over into the current, 13th,five-year plan. Civilization is understood to mean the entire modern economic and social structure.Characterizing the desired form of civilization as ecological is a statement that all human activities should be in harmony and balance with nature. This is, of course, a highly desirable but difficult undertaking. No other nation has attained this objective,although the Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden—are moving strongly in this direction.

六是成果应用报告制度。尽管在成果的转化应用方面，浙江为全国同类工作提供了经验与示范，但成果的转化应用不利、不顺、不畅的问题仍普遍存在。其中既有现行体制机制问题，也有督导不力问题。投入与产出失衡的现象不能再持续下去，应以制度来强化成果的应用，用业务要求引导成果应用，用绩效考核激励成果应用。用与不用效果大不一样，嘉兴市国土资源局的做法值得推广。及时了解成果应用的情况，有利于总结经验、发现问题，进而促进土地质量地质调查工作的技术进步，这是良性的互动。

China’s 2015 directive on promoting ecological civilization is an unusually comprehensive document which unambiguously states a long series of ambitious environmental policy objectives. The directive gives priority to conservation over development,and sets forth basic principles which include green development, what is called the circular city—that is following the slogan: reduce, reuse, recycle—and low carbon use.

1 Introduction

王敬凯丈量了12步，落脚处是一块30厘米长、5厘米宽的石头，掀开石头，有一个直径10厘米左右的洞。他从洞里掏出一个塑料包，里面有一个酸奶瓶和几颗草莓，还有一张纸条，上面写着：

The directive on Urban Planning and Construction Management is as sweeping in its way as the directive about Ecological Civilization[6]. It sets the goal for urban development to be “orderly,moderate, and efficient in order to build a harmonious, livable, vibrant, distinctive modern city, so that people’s lives will be better.” Orderly as an objective includes making sure that planning regulations are followed, and not reshaped by political considerations. Moderate is a statement against unusual building shapes or sizes, and Efficient is a prescription for not expanding cities until all available land within the existing urbanized area has been developed. Achieving a Harmonious Society has been an important policy objective since the 12th five-year plan and, among other meanings, is a statement about reducing social inequality. Livable and Vibrant cities are almost universal planning objectives; in this context they can be understood as qualities that that are not being achieved under current planning and development rule books. Seeking distinctive cities is also a statement against the current planning system, which is submerging the individual historic character of cities with development that follows the same rulebook almost everywhere.Focusing on improving the quality of life as the ultimate objective is meant to change the focus of planning and development from simply delivering such elements as housing, parks, and transportation,important as they are, to considering the design of the city as a whole.

A组患者以1μg·kg-1·h-1的速率泵注右美托咪定48h，如发现不可控的心动过缓或低血压，停止泵注。B、C两组不给予右美托咪定泵注，A、B组其余治疗相同。应用视觉模拟评分法 （visual analog scale，VAS）、以单盲法对患者入院当时（≤伤后6 h）（T1）、伤后 24h（T2）、7 d（T3）疼痛程度进行评估。0 为“无痛”；10 为“最剧烈的疼痛”。

The directive defines urban design as the implementation of urban planning, the provision of individual design guidance, and as the effective means of shaping a city’s characteristic style. Single building design must meet the requirements of urban design in shape, color, massing, height, and other significant characteristics. Development must make full use of natural systems in managing new urbanization, including green infrastructure for water conservation and stormwater. Rehabilitation of the natural ecology within urban areas is also an objective, and the government has already started a “Sponge City” pilot program, investing $12.7 billion USD in green infrastructure in 16 cities.The directive also includes a long series of specific objectives covering the many aspects of city building, including building construction, pollution control and sewage treatment. It calls for new systems of urban governance at every governmental level to implement these policies.

China’s leadership has given the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development the task of figuring out how to administer these nationally important policy objectives. Any advocate for urban design has to be pleased and excited that design has been given a central role in reforming urban development in China, although we know from experience in other places that there will be resistance to change and that making these reforms is going to be a complicated and difficult task. We therefore have looked at the task of producing these regulations with an eye to what the complexities and difficulties are likely to be.

历史使命越光荣，奋斗目标越宏伟，前进道路越艰巨， 执政环境越复杂，我们越要增强忧患意识，越要从严治党，扎扎实实做好高校党建工作并切实提高党建工作效率，让我们党永远立于不败之地，为全面建成小康社会、实现社会主义现代化建设、实现中华民族伟大复兴之路而做出自己的一份贡献。

In an age of climate change, globalization, and rapid population growth, as well as the continued fast pace of urbanization in China, large-scale urban design measures will be needed. The current urbanization rules permit development almost everywhere in the more populous parts of China, which has resulted in the loss of large areas of the natural environment, of farmland, and of historic buildings.The current rules also do not recognize the serious risks to both existing and new development created by changes in climate, particularly sea-level rise.

The Ministry of Land and Resources is the central Chinese government agency responsible for preparing the national land use plan[7]. This plan sets over-all parameters for land use, such as how much arable land needs to be preserved and how much urbanized land there should be as the sum of all the provincial, city, and local plans. This plan is,in theory, a powerful tool for balancing ecological preservation and urbanization, although in practice it does not appear to be an effective control mechanism for decisions about which specific parts of the agricultural and natural landscape should become urbanized. Having a national land use plan addressing water resources, food security, protection from storms, preventing air and water pollution, and adapting to climate change could be a way to help implement the Ecological Civilization policy directive to prioritize conservation and natural systems over urbanization. Making some of these broadbrush decisions at the national level, although politically difficult, could take some of the local development pressures out of the planning and design processes at provincial and local levels. A move in this directions it the 2015 government initiative plans to curb the growth of 14 cities through urban growth boundaries, including Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou[8], similar to urban growth boundaries enacted for the state of Oregon in the United States.

Provinces are the next level of government decision-making in China, plus some big cities that have the same status as provinces. The question is whether the outcome for some urban design issues can be predetermined by land-use plans at the province level. These land-use plans are generally very abstract, but they do show directions of urban growth and general locations for population centers.China has had problems with decisions about where to build new towns, as exemplified by the so-called“Ghost Cities”, and growth vectors determined by transportation and by calculations of future population growth, which are typical parts of regional plans, can conflict with the larger policy of subordinating urban growth to the preservation of natural systems. Moreover, environmental preservation will be vital for recreation and agriculture on a regional level, for instance for the new Jing-Jin-Ji mega-city region, China’s national capital region. Urban and environmental design is needed to resolve policies at this level, as the context for urban design decisions in cities, districts, and individual parcels.

3 When to Build

Cities in China have expanded rapidly by urbanizing rural land. The city acquires rural land and relocates the villagers. The city then prepares district-level and parcel plans and sells the land to developers. The difference between the acquisition and selling costs goes to the city. This practice increases future operational expenses for the city,and push-back against these acquisitions from rural communities has been growing, but this well-established practice provides immediate income to the local government leaders as a way to solve fiscal problems.

Channeling growth into green-field locations can lead to the neglect of development opportunities within the areas that have already been partly urbanized, even if developing these areas would otherwise be in keeping with ecological civilization objectives. The current system also does not give priority to saving valuable environmental and agricultural resources by increasing the density of development around places with greatly improved access: around the new transit stations, around highspeed rail stations, and next to airports.

周边居民没人明白何故又修这条路，阿东更是不介意。阿东每天骑车直接从东亭拐入东湖路。他不需要迎宾大道，修不修这条路跟他的生活毫无关系。阿东眼下的满门心思是要不要去追资料员小丁。他觉得自己是有点喜欢她的了。他甚至暗中了解到她是师专毕业。阿东想，自己怎么也是硕士，就算家里穷，配一个大专生也应该是有资格的。

(1)在求解双层模式之前，通过收集到的电动汽车停车时间、电池电量及行驶需求信息来评估电动汽车无序充电需求(下文算例中通过4.2节具体例子讨论)，非分时电价ρ0在本文中根据工业用户电价设定；

When it does become necessary to expand an urbanized area, where the urbanization takes place should be subject to urban design guidelines that protect the landscape as a whole and optimize the urban spatial structure. These are complex determinations,and making them based primarily on ecological and urban planning considerations is essential, but also likely to be a difficult political problem.

Preventing excessive urban sprawl has been identified as a basic task for the new urban design guidelines[9]. What is excessive? One answer comes from a measurement of population and workplace densities per hectare within existing urbanized areas.Until these densities throughout the city reach a pre-determined level set by the master plan, acquisition of rural land for new development should be constrained. However, such measurements could work against retaining green space and historic buildings within the developed part of cities. The plans for the newer parts of Chinese cities have accepted the automobile as the primary means of transport. Now that so many Chinese cities are building rail transit systems, growth pressures can be accommodated by more intense development within walking distance of transit stations. Diverting new development to appropriate sites within walking distance of transit stations can reduce urban sprawl and make these transit systems more efficient.

4 What to Build at the City Level

中国当前典型的地区规划，也就是所谓的终极蓝图规划中，是当规划的所有要素都实施后，一张体现未来发展状态的鸟瞰图。终极蓝图规划通常是失败的，大多数政府已经停止使用这种规划方式，因为计划中体现的设想在开发完成之前就已经过时了。但是，这种蓝图式规划作为发展导则对于快速发展的中国而言相对成功，这主要是由于规划中的一系列选择都是根据相关规范确定的，除此几乎没有其他的备选方案。

Each of these big blocks is scheduled for a single land use. This kind of zoning for single uses over a large area was also advocated by the C.I.A.M.Another C.I.A.M. concept is the segregation of large blocks of public open space as a separate land use, rather than a public open space system integrated with other activities. The C.I.A.M. advocated technological solutions as exemplars of the modern age. Preserving the natural landscape and historical buildings was seen as romantic and unscientific.The plan is completely dominated by the engineering of the road system, and the way the large undifferentiated land use zones do not recognize the underlying natural landscape—and any historic or pre-existing development—is very much a realization of C.I.A.M. principles

The C.I.A.M version of urban design is now embodied in a whole series of technical planning requirements, which will need to be changed if there is to be a different urban design at the city level.

The large blocks in current plans are required by regulations that set a minimum and a maximum for the total length of major streets for each two square-kilometers. A network of smaller blocks,which most urban designers advocate today, will require much more street construction, so revisions to the rules will be needed, as plans have to meet regulations to obtain official approval.

Land use allocations for a master plan in China are determined by formulas based on predictions of population growth and business activity, as is common practice everywhere. However, the mapping of the land-use projections in the plan is skewed because mixed use is not generally recognized.When there is a mixed use category, it is usually applied in special situations. So the plans for residential and commercial zones map the quantity of land needed for each separate category, which overstates the demand for land if mixed-use zones were more generally permitted. The land uses are then allocated within the large blocks that are created by the limits on the total amount of streets. There has not been a general practice of setting aside land that should not be developed for ecological reasons, or for land that is already developed in a way that does not meet the land-use categories. All land is covered in the maps and given a land-use zone designation.As mentioned before, the park system is also treated as a separate land use.

To determine the pattern of the overall urban form,an urban landscape framework, a public space system, and a set of key requirements for areas of special urban design importance will all be needed.Introducing these urban design guidelines into the planning process will require that the highway,street and land-use map not be a given, handed to the urban designers by the planners, but rather that land use be determined as part of an urban design plan that includes a public open space and street plan related to transit, urban building forms, and other aspects of the overall urban form. The landuse “budget” should be allocated, almost certainly though an iterative process, as part of an overall planning and urban design process which includes mixed-use centers related to transit as well as residential neighborhoods. Without such a process there can be no effective alternative to the pre-existing C.I.A.M. influenced designs embodied in official land use plans.

5 What to Build at the District Level

A typical Chinese district-level plan today is what is called an end-state plan, an aerial view of what development should look like when all elements of the plan have been implemented. End-stateplans have generally been failures, and most governments have stopped using them, because the assumptions embodied in the plan go out of date long before the development process is complete. However, China’s rapid pace of development has permitted the end-state district plan to be relatively successful as guidance for development, particularly because the choices made in the plan are closely determined by the planning rule book, and there are few alternative options.

The district plan in China is the basis for a regulatory plan which governs development at the parcel level, so it is the critical step in the urban design process. The district plan already embodies a clearly defined urban design which takes the C.I.A.M.—influenced modernist principles to the next level of detail. The street system defines large blocks;the natural landscape is subordinated to the street pattern; the large open spaces are separated from development; and the dominant building type is an individual residential tower surrounded by a fringe of green space, with all these towers facing south.

China’s regulations for residential development require that every residence in a housing tower should be able to receive two or three hours of sunshine on the shortest day of the year, depending on its location within China[11]. In practice this requirement leads to rows of buildings, all facing south,and separated to allow for the angle of sun to reach the base of each building on December 21st. As noted earlier in this article, these rules were originally intended to help reduce winter heating costs in a time of scarcity, but this requirement continues to make sense today because of new concerns about energy efficiency, and access to sunlight for solar panels. Feng Shui, the traditional Chinese belief system for determining auspicious aspects of everyday life, also strongly favors having the principal rooms of a dwelling face south. This belief has been decisive in determining the design of housing built for sale in China. Even if the buyer does not believe in Feng Shui, there is still concern about the resale value, as many people do consider it in making a buying decision.

There is already a strong urban design concept embodied in the usual way that district plans are being made. The difficulty is that this kind of plan does not fulfill the expectations for a new set of urban design guidelines. These guidelines at the district level should call for following the urban design requirements established at the city-wide, master plan level, including respecting the ecological characteristics of the location, relating to historic and cultural features, and establishing a public space system which is not just a land-use allocation but is integrated into an overall design.

Points of conflict if the proposed new urban design guidelines vary from the existing standards are likely to include the design of the street system, the management of the underlying landscape, and the creation of a public open space system for the entire district. The most difficult urban design issue is likely to be the reliance on south-facing residential towers spaced to permit sunlight access on December 21st.

The sun-access regulation is a performance specification, not a prescription for the design of residential towers, although that is what it has become.There are ways of meeting this requirement using alternative urban design configurations, such as attached high-rise and low-rise buildings forming courtyards, particularly if some of the lower buildings are mixed-use. In addition, most Chinese street systems are designed with the streets running northsouth and east-west, the usual orientation in other countries as well. The famous plan for the extension of Barcelona by Ildefons Cerdà, implemented in the late-19th century, rotates the street system 45 degrees from true north to improve exposure to sunlight. The Barcelona plan suggests that it may be possible for Chinese master plans and district plans to use street layouts that help assure compliance with the sunlight regulations. The width of the streets and the size of the blocks will be an important part of these designs. There are now computer programs that can evaluate alternative building and street configurations for sunlight regulation compliance, so this could be an important area of urban design research.

Another important issue at the district level of urban design is the size of city blocks. A walkable city requires relatively small blocks; otherwise the journey between two points can involve a long detour, as shown in these diagrams. Smaller blocks are especially important for creating easy access to transit. Security for residents living within the large blocks created by the current Chinese urban design system makes each of their blocks a gated community, so it is not possible for pedestrians or cyclists to take short-cuts through them. There have been proposals to open up these blocks for general public access, but these proposals are sure to be strongly resisted by the residents, because of their perception that this would reduce their property values. Opening up the large blocks, if it is done, will require an urban design plan for each situation which channels public access through the block but continues to provide for the security of the residents.

The current Chinese security system is actually more efficient than what happens in cities where the blocks are small and each individual building is itself a gated community, as in New York City where the residential buildings are either kept locked, or have their own doormen and other security staff. In planning for new development, there are block sizes between the smaller blocks found in New York City, and the large configurations found in China. The Barcelona block, for example, is big enough that it can provide private open space for the residents of the block and still allow for comfortable pedestrian circulation along the streets outside.

Block sizes and building configurations are critical urban design issues that need to be resolved at the district level where they are incorporated into the regulatory plan that governs what can happen at the level of individual development parcels within the plan.

6 What to Build at the Parcel Level

Urban design guidelines for the parcel level should require an approvals submission by the developer which presents a detailed design for each specific plot, in accordance with the regulatory plan, the district level plan, and other requirements. The detailed design of each development parcel, should be coordinated with the design of the adjacent properties. The guidelines for designing each development parcel should include the design of the open space, building setbacks, the location of landmark buildings (a general term which may or may not include historic structures), an efficient circulation system, landscape elements, municipal facilities(like schools), parking and underground spaces. The design submission should also include the relevant implementation strategies. As the parcel level plans are to conform to the regulatory plan at the district level, the critical urban design decisions have to be made when the district and district regulatory plans are adopted.

7 What to Build in Special Situations

Individual city districts that are important for a city’s identity, history, and culture, should have their own specific guidelines. This means that special urban design regulatory requirements should be set for major new development areas, historical and cultural streets and blocks, adaptive reuse of historic districts, new central business districts,transportation hubs, and waterfront areas. The urban design requirements should regulate: the skyline, in order to express the city’s cultural and natural characteristics; architectural expression, to ensure buildings are compatible with the existing built environment, and public space, so that there is a coherent network and human-scale public realm.These special situation urban design plans will need to be set and regulated at the district level, so that they will coordinate the design of development on individual parcels.

Chinese government agencies have been experimenting for years with alternative urban design concepts for special situations. The One City, Nine Towns project in the Shanghai region brought in foreign designers and planners to contribute different ideas for urban design and architectural expression for each of the nine new town centers[12]. Each new town is supposed to have a specific national character. There is Gao Qiao New Town which is considered to have a Dutch theme, Anting New Town, which has a German theme, and so on. Emulating foreign cities was chosen as a way to demonstrate alternatives to the existing rule book and test them in the real-estate market.

The Beijing Finance Street is an example of a completed district which has been designed as a special situation. Most of the buildings have been designed to house important Chinese financial institutions.The government intended to create a financial district, and not just a group of buildings that provided the necessary office space. The design and planning team included Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, who helped draw a plan that used building placement and height limit guidelines to organize a coherent group of buildings around a central park.

8 Implementing Urban Design Guidelines The nine Shanghai new towns and the Beijing Financial Street are demonstrations that urban design guidelines that permit alternatives to the current development rule book in China need specificity in order to be effective. For the nine towns it was emulation of pre-existing urban design patterns in other places. For the Financial Street it was an explicit set of building placement regulations and height limits. It is not enough to require that planners and designers pay attention to a list of signi ficant issues. It is also necessary to define desirable outcomes.

The followings are some of the administrative tools that can be incorporated into the urban design guidelines as they are developed and adopted.

At the city-wide, master plan level, the process of land-use planning, in accordance with the guidelines, can begin with a complete environmental inventory that provides a basis for excluding land that should not be developed. Land with a limited carrying capacity can also be identified and mapped only for low-intensity uses. In coastal areas and along riverfronts, land can be identified where special protection from sea level rise and other sources offlooding will be needed.

Also at the city-wide, master-plan level, sub-categories within the larger residential, office, and industrial categories can be defined as uses which are suitable for a new mixed-use category which can be mapped extensively to allow more flexibility in development decisions.

The urban design guidelines can also establish minimum residential and commercial densities for locations with good road and transit access. China has about the same land area as the United States—if you exclude Alaska—but China has about five times the population of the United States and only half as much usable land area. The villa districts in China which emulate American suburban development are understandably popular with the increasingly large proportion of the Chinese population which has become rich, but permitting low-density,land-consuming places is not a good long-term policy for China. There need to be other design concepts for privileged living.

In addition to eliminating the current restrictions on the permitted amount of major streets in a citywide master plan, there can also be regulations to require smaller block sizes for subsidiary streets. A minimum block perimeter is one such requirement.Interconnection of streets can also be encouraged with a minimum number of street intersections per square kilometer.

At the district level the current practice of preparing end-state plans to illustrate the land-use plan can be replaced with an urban design concept plan that maps preservation areas, a street and block plan, and a public open space plan. The location of critically important buildings can be shown, as well as building-placement guidelines using such techniques as set-back and build-to lines and height limits.This urban design plan can then be the basis for mapping land uses. This approach permits more design flexibility, but also helps insure that critical design elements are understood and implemented.

At the parcel level, implementation of the district-level plan requires a review and approval procedure. If the land has been obtained directly from a governmental agency, the guidelines can be part of the sales agreement, including a requirement that architectural and landscape plans be reviewed for compliance. If the land is already privately controlled, there needs to be some kind of permit system which includes a review procedure.

If new guidelines for urban design can become the basis for national, regional, city-wide and district level urban design, China can create an unequalled urban design system which will be an effective guide to achieving the important goals set forth by the central government.

注释和参考文献

Notes and References

[1]World Bank national accounts data, and OECD National Accounts data files. Accessed July 1, 2017.

[2]United Nations. World urbanization prospects: The 2014 revision, highlights [N]. Population Division,United Nations, 2014.

[3]人民网.国家新型城镇化规划(2014—2020年)[EB/OL]. (2014-03-17) [2017-07-01]. http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2014/0317/c1001-24649809.html. People’s Daily online. National New-type Urbanization Plan (2014-2020)[EB/OL]. (2014-03-17) [2017-07-01]. http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2014/0317/c1001-24649809.html.

[4]新华网.中共中央 国务院关于加快推进生态文明建设的意见[EB/OL]. (2015-04-25) [2017-11-01]. http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2015-05/05/c_1115187518.htm. Xinhuanet. Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, Opinions on Further Promoting the Development of Ecological Civilization [EB/OL].(2015-04-25) [2017-11-01]. http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2015-05/05/c_1115187518.htm.

[5]新华网.中共中央国务院关于进一步加强城市规划建设管理工作的若干意见[EB/OL]. (2016-02-06)[2017-11-01]. http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-02/21/c_1118109546.htm. Xinhuanet. Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, Opinions on Further Strengthening Urban Planning and Construction Management[EB/OL]. (2016-02-06) [2017-11-01]. http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2016-02/21/c_1118109546.htm.

[6]Ecological Civilization was first mentioned of ficially in HU Jintao’s Report at 17th Party Congress, October 15,2007. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-10/24/content_6204564_5.htm (accessed Nov 1, 2017). The term was stressed and listed as one of the five goals in the country’s overall development plan in XI Jinping’s Report at 18th Party Congress, Nov 8, 2012.

[7]There is a National Land Use Plan “全国土地利用计划”every year, released by the Ministry of land and resources of the People’s Republic of China. The 2017 National Land Use Plan was released in May 2017.

[8]China Daily. 14 cities to draw red line to stop urban sprawl [EB/OL]. (2015-06-05) [2017-11-01]. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015-06/05/content_20913209.htm.

[9]中华人民共和国住房和城乡建设部. 城市设计管理办法[S]. 北京:中华人民共和国住房和城乡建设部,2017. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China. Urban Design Guidelines [S].Beijing: Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China, 2017.

[10]See for example: Le Corbusier and Anthony Eardley.The Athens Charter [M]. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973.

[11]中华人民共和国住房和城乡建设部,中华人民共和国国家质量监督检验检疫总局. GB 50180-93城市居住区规划设计规范[S]. 北京: 中国建筑工业出版社,2016. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction of the People’s Republic of China, General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China. Urban Residential Code, GB 50180-93[S].Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, 2016.

[12]XUE Q, ZHOU M. Importation and adaptation:Building “one city and nine towns” in Shanghai: A case study of Vittorio Gregotti’s plan of Pujiang Town [J]. Urban Design International, 2007, 12(1): 21-40.